Working on the style of a work means, first of all, working on its vocabulary, since the word is the basis for understanding speech. Lack of clarity of speech is an invariable sign of confusion of thought, argued L.N. Tolstoy; Jokingly, the writer remarked: “If I were a king, I would make a law that a writer who uses a word whose meaning he cannot explain will be deprived of the right to write and receive 100 blows of the rod.”
The stylistic approach to the study of vocabulary puts forward the most important problem of choosing a word for the most accurate expression of thought. Correct usage words by the author represents not only the dignity of style, but also necessary condition the informational value of the work, the effectiveness of its content. Not right choice words distorts the meaning of the statement, generating not only lexical, but also logical errors in speech.
Words should be used in strict accordance with their semantics, i.e. meaning. Each significant word has a lexical meaning, naming phenomena and objects of reality to which certain concepts correspond in our minds. With a clear presentation of thoughts, the words used by the authors fully correspond to their subject-logical meaning. V.G. Belinsky wrote: “Each word in a poetic work must so exhaust the entire meaning required by the thought of the whole work, so that it can be seen that there is no other word in the language that could replace it.”
Speech accuracy is one of the most important communicative qualities.
Conceptual, semantic accuracy is one of the typesspeech accuracy . Reflecting the connection between speech and thinking, it depends on how reality is comprehended by the speaker, and is also associated with the ability to find such components of speech that best express the speaker’s thoughts, his perception and assessment of reality.
Precise use of words
Only a deep knowledge of the meanings of words in all their subtleties, as well as complex - and at the same time clear - mental activity, intense intellectual work can ensure the achievement of such quality of speech as accuracy.
When expressing his thoughts, the speaker must use words precisely, in full accordance with their meanings recorded in dictionaries. Thus, semantic accuracy of speech reflects compliance with the lexical and semantic norms of the Russian language. Knowledge of the system of lexical meanings - the most important condition accuracy of speech. The character in the novel “The Twelve Chairs,” by using the word “peignoir” to describe a ball gown, violated precisely this condition.
Synonyms and semantic accuracy of speech
Forsemantic accuracy of speech It is also necessary to take into account the shades of meaning of words included in the synonymous series. With the help of synonyms denoting the same concept, you can diversify it and give it a stylistic coloring. The correct selection of synonyms shows the speaker how the choice of word can help him express his vision of the subject, its understanding and evaluation. If the speaker did not have the goal of presenting an object in a certain form and used, say, the wordthrifty where it would be better, more accurate, to use an adjectivestingy , then this leads to inaccurate speech. For example, is Plyushkin stingy or thrifty?Thrifty - careful with property, prudent, economical;stingy - excessively, greedily thrifty, avoiding expenses. The difference in word usage is obvious.
Word compatibility and semantic accuracy of speech
Since a word has the ability to combine not with all, but with certain words, the choice of word must correspond to its surroundings. For example, synonymous wordsmanners and habits, denoting a method, a manner of behavior, when used exactly will require different conditions. If it is about an animal, then a noun must be chosenhabits (hare habits, fox habits). If you mean a person, then you can use both nouns, and the person’s behavior in both cases will be assessed negatively. Nounmanners will characterize the manner of acting in a certain way (he has lordly manners, this person has the manners of a high-ranking person), the wordhabits will characterize inclinations (I recognize the habits of this notorious liar).
Polysemantic words and semantic accuracy of speech
Difficulties in word usage, leading to inaccurate speech, arise when using polysemic words. Compare, for example, this answer to a question about a patient: “I just left.” If this statement is pronounced with a neutral intonation and is not accompanied by any non-verbal means of expressing emotions: gestures, facial expressions, then the addressee will not understand what is being said, since the verbmove away can have two meanings: “to return to normal, to feel better” and “to die.”
Paronyms and semantic accuracy of speech
It is difficult to use paronyms in speech - these are words that are similar in morphological composition and therefore similar in sound, but do not have the same meaning.Friendly ( friend-related) friendly lunch - friendly ( based on friendship) friendly visit . Hidden ( secret, invisible) hidden front - secretive ( unrevealing) secretive person. Ignorant ( ill-mannered, tactless) - ignoramus ( uneducated, ignorant).
Functional styles and semantic accuracy of speech
Requirements for speech accuracy vary depending on different functional styles. Least requires precision Speaking, since direct contact between the speaker and the listener makes it possible to clarify the meaning of what was said. Increased requirements for accuracy are imposed in business, scientific, and journalistic speech. For example, scientific speech must accurately and clearly convey the scientist’s thought, his hypothesis or the results of a scientific experiment. In scientific speech, terms should be used as accurately as possible. Terms, however, are sometimes characterized by ambiguity, so the author must clearly define in what sense a given term is used in his speech. Overloading scientific language with terms makes it difficult to understand.
To gain accuracy in speech, it is also necessary to have a good knowledge of the meanings of words in a narrow sphere of use: foreign, professional, archaic.
1. Concept of lexical norms ah, their aspects.
Lexical norms- these are norms that regulate the rules of use and combination of words in speech. The use of a word in speech is always determined by the characteristics of its lexical meaning - the content that reflects our knowledge and understanding of an object, phenomenon, property or process.
When using a word in speech, we must ensure that, firstly, its lexical meaning is implemented appropriately and correctly, and secondly, that the word correctly expresses our attitude, that is, it is expressive. In accordance with this, lexical norms have two aspects: accuracy and expressiveness.
2. Lexical norms in terms of accuracy.
Speech violations of lexical norms in terms of accuracy.
- – the quality of speech, which consists in the correspondence of the semantic side of speech with reality, in the ability to find the right words to express one’s thoughts.
The use of a word in speech is always determined, first of all, by the peculiarities of its lexical meaning, and also depends on the context - its environment.
The lexical meaning of a word is its content, i.e. historically fixed in the minds of speakers the correlation between a sound complex and an object or phenomenon of reality.
In modern Russian language can be distinguished four main types of lexical meanings words, then classified by different signs:
- By connection, correlation with the subject of reality, i.e. According to the method of naming, the meanings are direct, or basic, and figurative, or indirect.
- meaning is one that is directly related to an object or phenomenon, quality, action, etc.
- is the meaning that arises as a result of the transfer of direct meaning to another object due to various associations.
- According to the degree of semantic motivation the values are divided into unmotivated And motivated. For example, the meaning of the word ruka is unmotivated, but the meanings of the words manual, sleeve, etc. are already motivated by semantic and word-formation connections with the word ruka.
- According to the degree of lexical compatibility values are divided by relatively free(these include all direct meanings of words) and not free. Among the latter, there are two main types:
- According to the nature of the nominative functions performed values are highlighted actually nominative And expressive-synonymous. Nominative are those that directly, directly name an object, phenomenon, quality, action, etc. Expressive-synonymous is the meaning of a word in the semantics of which the emotional-expressive feature predominates. Words with such meanings exist independently, are reflected in the dictionary and are perceived as evaluative synonyms for words that have their own nominative meaning.
The lexical meaning of a word can be unique (such words are called unambiguous), but it can also coexist with other lexical meanings of the same word (such words are called polysemantic).
VIOLATIONS OF LEXICAL NORM.
1. Violation of lexical compatibility of words. Lexical compatibility of words is the ability of words to connect with each other. If you do not take into account the lexical meaning of words, as well as the tradition of combining words in a phrase, lexical incompatibility arises. For example, there are words whose combinability in the Russian language is phraseologically related: stale bread, callous person, but not stale cake or callous friend. We can say deep night or deep old age, but we cannot say deep day or deep youth. In some other cases, we are inattentive to the lexical meaning of the words that we combine into a phrase. For example, a conversation has been read (this is an oral genre!), a conversation can be held, and a book or lecture can be read.
2. Mixing paronyms. Paronyms are words that are similar in sound, but do not have the same meaning (remains and residues; effective and efficient; economical, economical, economical). The words that make up a paronymic series, as a rule, are correlated with each other in logical and semantic terms, which can cause them to be mixed up in speech. But paronyms cannot replace each other (illustrated and illustrative. Not possible: illustrative book or illustrated material).
3. Inaccuracies in word usage. Accuracy of word usage is the correct choice of word in accordance with its lexical meaning. Inaccurate word usage occurs when a person is not aware of the meaning of a word or does not take this meaning into account. For example: Tatyana is contraindicated to Onegin (instead of: opposed). Tatyana loves her nanny - this gray-bearded old lady (instead of: gray-haired or gray-haired).
5. Tautology– repetition of the same root or identical words (organize an organization, depict an image).
As already mentioned, the word must not only be precise, but also expressive. Expressive speech can be achieved using various means:
A) Polysemy- polysemy, the presence of a word (unit of language) of two or more interrelated and historically determined meanings. For example: “Well, you’ll outshout everyone!” and “I can’t shout you down”. In such a case, we should talk about grammatical polysemy.
Often when they talk about Polysemy refers primarily to the polysemy of words as units of vocabulary. Lexical polysemy is the ability of one word to serve to designate different objects and phenomena of reality (associatively related to each other and forming a complex semantic unity).
For example: sleeve - sleeve(“part of the shirt” is “a branch of the river”). The following connections can be made between the meanings of a word:
- : knight - knight ("animal" - "chess piece")
- : dish - dish (“type of dish” - “portion of food”)
It is necessary to distinguish polysemy And homonymy. In particular, the word “key” in the meanings of “spring” and “musical sign” are two homonyms.
Stylistically, polysemy can be used to give speech expressiveness. Masters fiction in their works they reveal the semantic shades of polysemantic words, often invisible in everyday use.
B) Homonyms- words different in meaning, but identical in sound and spelling.
Homonyms are:
- Full. Full lexical homonyms They are words of the same grammatical class; they have the same entire system of forms.
- For example: braid - “type of hairstyle”, scythe - “agricultural implement” and scythe - “cape, shallow”; force - “to block with something placed” and force - “to force someone to do something”, etc.
- Incomplete. The phenomenon of partial (or incomplete) homonymy is characterized by the fact that words with different meanings do not coincide in sound and spelling in all grammatical forms Oh.
Not to be confused with homophones, homographs and paronyms.
- - words that match in all or separate forms, but do not coincide in sound and have different meanings (O rgan - org A n).
- homographs- normative and non-normative pronunciation of words with different accents.
- - words of the same part of speech, identical in sound in all grammatical forms, but with different spellings (company - campaign)
Homophones are:
- Full (all forms);
- Incomplete (not in all forms): flu is a mushroom.
- - words of one or more parts of speech that match in sound and spelling in separate grammatical forms (my Friend - my hands)
1. The concept of lexical norms, their aspects.
Lexical norms- these are norms that regulate the rules of use and combination of words in speech. The use of a word in speech is always determined by the characteristics of its lexical meaning - the content that reflects our knowledge and understanding of an object, phenomenon, property or process.
When using a word in speech, we must ensure that, firstly, its lexical meaning is implemented appropriately and correctly, and secondly, that the word correctly expresses our attitude, that is, it is expressive. In accordance with this, lexical norms have two aspects: accuracy and expressiveness.
2. Lexical norms in terms of accuracy.
Speech violations of lexical norms in terms of accuracy.
Accuracy– the quality of speech, which consists in the correspondence of the semantic side of speech with reality, in the ability to find the right words to express one’s thoughts.
The use of a word in speech is always determined, first of all, by the peculiarities of its lexical meaning, and also depends on the context - its environment.
The lexical meaning of a word is its content, i.e. historically fixed in the minds of speakers the correlation between a sound complex and an object or phenomenon of reality.
In modern Russian language can be distinguished four main types of lexical meanings words, then classified according to various criteria:
1) By connection, correlation with the subject of reality, i.e. According to the method of naming, the meanings are direct, or basic, and figurative, or indirect.
Direct meaning is one that is directly related to an object or phenomenon, quality, action, etc.
Portable is the meaning that arises as a result of the transfer of direct meaning to another object due to various associations.
2) According to the degree of semantic motivation the values are divided into unmotivated And motivated. For example, the meaning of the word ruka is unmotivated, but the meanings of the words manual, sleeve, etc. are already motivated by semantic and word-formation connections with the word ruka.
3) According to the degree of lexical compatibility values are divided by relatively free(these include all direct meanings of words) and not free. Among the latter, there are two main types:
1)phraseologically related meaning is the meaning that occurs for words in certain lexically indivisible combinations. The boundaries of the use of words with this meaning are narrow. Thus, in the word bosom, the figurative meaning “sincere, sincere” is realized, as a rule, only in combination with the word friend (friendship);
2)syntactically determined The meaning is the one that appears in a word when it plays an unusual role in a sentence. Context plays a significant role in the development of these meanings. For example, when using the word oak in the role of characterizing a person: Eh, you oak, you didn’t understand anything - its meaning “dull, insensitive” (colloquial) is realized.
4) According to the nature of the nominative functions performed values are highlighted actually nominative And expressive-synonymous. Nominative are those that directly, directly name an object, phenomenon, quality, action, etc. Expressive-synonymous is the meaning of a word in the semantics of which the emotional-expressive feature predominates. Words with such meanings exist independently, are reflected in the dictionary and are perceived as evaluative synonyms for words that have their own nominative meaning.
The lexical meaning of a word can be unique (such words are called unambiguous), but it can also coexist with other lexical meanings of the same word (such words are called polysemantic).
Lexical norms regulating the aspect of accuracy prescribe the avoidance of speech errors - violations of lexical norms. Let us briefly consider what these main speech defects are.
1. Violation of lexical compatibility of words. Lexical compatibility of words is the ability of words to connect with each other. If you do not take into account the lexical meaning of words, as well as the tradition of combining words in a phrase, lexical incompatibility arises. For example, there are words whose combinability in the Russian language is phraseologically related: stale bread, callous person, but not stale cake or callous friend. We can say deep night or deep old age, but we cannot say deep day or deep youth. In some other cases, we are inattentive to the lexical meaning of the words that we combine into a phrase. For example, a conversation has been read (this is an oral genre!), a conversation can be held, and a book or lecture can be read.
2. Mixing paronyms. Paronyms are words that are similar in sound, but do not have the same meaning (remains and residues; effective and efficient; economical, economical, economical). The words that make up a paronymic series, as a rule, are correlated with each other in logical and semantic terms, which can cause them to be mixed up in speech. But paronyms cannot replace each other (illustrated and illustrative. Not possible: illustrative book or illustrated material).
3. Inaccuracies in word usage. Accuracy of word usage is the correct choice of word in accordance with its lexical meaning. Inaccurate word usage occurs when a person is not aware of the meaning of a word or does not take this meaning into account. For example: Tatyana is contraindicated to Onegin (instead of: opposed). Tatyana loves her nanny - this gray-bearded old lady (instead of: gray-haired or gray-haired).
4. Pleonasms - words that are close in meaning and therefore logically superfluous (A brave and courageous person is an obvious, open pleonasm. Free vacancy, the main point- hidden, implicit pleonasm).
5. Tautology – repetition of the same root or identical words (to organize an organization, to depict an image).
6. Speech failure– unmotivated omission of words to the detriment of the content of the statement (In the office there were hanging<портреты>Russian writers).
All these speech disorders Lexical language norms appear not only as a result of poor knowledge of the language, but also as a result of a careless attitude to the word, inattention.
As already mentioned, the word must not only be precise, but also expressive. Expressive speech can be achieved using various means:
A) Polysemy- polysemy, the presence of a word (unit of language) of two or more interrelated and historically determined meanings. For example: “Well, you’ll outshout everyone!” and “I can’t shout you down”. In such a case, we should talk about grammatical polysemy.
Often when they talk about Polysemy refers primarily to the polysemy of words as units of vocabulary. Lexical polysemy is the ability of one word to serve to designate different objects and phenomena of reality (associatively related to each other and forming a complex semantic unity).
For example: sleeve - sleeve(“part of the shirt” is “a branch of the river”). The following connections can be made between the meanings of a word:
Metaphor: knight - knight ("animal" - "chess piece")
Metonymy: dish - dish (“type of dish” - “portion of food”)
It is necessary to distinguish polysemy And homonymy. In particular, the word “key” in the meanings of “spring” and “musical sign” are two homonyms.
Stylistically, polysemy can be used to give speech expressiveness. Masters of fiction in their works reveal the semantic shades of polysemantic words, often invisible in everyday use.
b) Homonyms- words different in meaning, but identical in sound and spelling.
Homonyms are:
· Full. Full lexical homonyms are words of the same grammatical class; they have the same entire system of forms.
o For example: braid - “type of hairstyle”, scythe - “agricultural implement” and scythe - “cape, shallow”; force - “to block with something placed” and force - “to force someone to do something”, etc.
· Incomplete. The phenomenon of partial (or incomplete) homonymy is characterized by the fact that words with different meanings do not coincide in sound and spelling in all grammatical forms.
Not to be confused with homophones, homographs and paronyms.
Homographs- words that coincide in all or individual forms, but do not coincide in sound and have different meanings (O rgan - org A n).
Grammatical homographs- normative and non-normative pronunciation of words with different accents.
Homophones- words of the same part of speech, identical in sound in all grammatical forms, but with different spellings (company - campaign)
Homophones are:
· Full (all forms);
· Incomplete (not in all forms): flu is a mushroom.
Omoforms- words of one or more parts of speech that match in sound and spelling in separate grammatical forms (my Friend - my hands)
Stylistic functions of homonyms
Such phenomena, along with lexical homonymy itself, can be used for various stylistic purposes: to create expressiveness of speech, in puns, jokes, etc.
You puppies, follow me!
It will suit you well.
Look, don't talk,
Otherwise I’ll beat you up.
(A. Pushkin)
Homonymous words, along with polysemantic words, also form certain groups, linked internally by semantic unity different words, similar in spelling, pronunciation, coincidence of grammatical forms. Consequently, they, falling out of the system of words, semantically close or opposite, nevertheless represent formally united syntagms, i.e. elements of the general language system.
Homonym dictionaries
· Akhmanova O. S. Dictionary of homonyms of the Russian language.
· Kolesnikov N.P. Dictionary of Russian homonyms
· Dictionary of homonyms of the Russian language.
Norms of word usage, or lexical norms, mean the correct choice of words and the appropriateness of their use in a generally known meaning and in generally accepted combinations.
Norms of word usage require the speaker to thoughtfully evaluate the word in terms of its meaning, its motivation in the context, as well as from the standpoint of its aesthetic purpose.
Proper handling of words ensures complete mutual understanding, which is the essence of linguistic communication.
Speech culture at the lexical level provides for the analysis of common mistakes:
Using a word without taking into account its semantics;
Violations of lexical compatibility;
Wrong choice of synonyms, ambiguous words;
Incorrect use of antonyms, homonyms, confusion of paronyms;
Non-distinction between stylistic variants of words.
1. Semantic accuracy of speech. Word choice
The word is the basis for understanding speech. The correct use of words is a necessary condition for the informative value of the text and its effectiveness. “The obscurity of speech is an invariable sign of the obscurity of thought,” said L. Tolstoy. Words should be used in strict accordance with their semantics, that is, meaning. Each significant word has a lexical meaning. By naming the realities of the surrounding world, the word evokes in consciousness, in memory, some information, a certain concept.
Accuracy, clarity – the most important characteristics correct speech. The wrong choice of word distorts the meaning of the statement.
For example: The beginning of 2002 was marked by worsening climatic conditions - snowstorms, a sharp drop in temperature(instead of weather conditions: climate cannot change in a year) .
Platinum resistance thermometers work in difficult conditions(instead of apply).
I want to continue the family dynasty and therefore decided to become an officer(instead of tradition).
We focus on developing product quality(instead of we care about improvement).
Due to inaccurate word usage, anachronism may occur - a violation of chronological characteristics in the lexical meaning:
In ancient Rome, plebeians dissatisfied with the laws organized rallies(word rally appeared much later, in England).
INXVIIIcentury, several printing houses were closed in Leningrad(instead of Leningrad should have been used Petersburg).
Often the generic name is used instead of the specific name in order to give the statement the impression of “importance”. K.I. Chukovsky, in his book “Alive as Life,” recalled how the text was edited when preparing a radio broadcast for broadcast. The participant in the program wanted to say: “It rained heavily.” He was advised a more “cultural” option: “There was heavy rainfall.” Such unfounded predilection for generic names is observed too often. Atmospheric precipitation they call rain, downpours, drizzle, snow, blizzard; green spaces- lilac, jasmine, bird cherry. Expressions used park area instead of park, square, grove, forest; suburban area instead of suburb, village, station. Such expressions make speech colorless and formal.
Logic– one of the essential signs of communicatively complete speech. Anyone who does not follow the development of thought makes mistakes that seriously impede communication. Logical errors caused by poor choice of words or expressions are due to various circumstances. This is a low culture of thinking, poor command of the material presented, the use of words and expressions without understanding their meaning.
Alogism is a comparison of incomparable concepts. Alogism is often the cause of speech failure. For example:
The syntax of encyclopedia articles is different from other scientific articles. It turns out that the syntax is compared with other scientific articles. You should write: The syntax of encyclopedic articles has a number of features that are unusual for the syntax of other scientific articles.
Hydraulic test pressure generally increases compared to seamless pipes instead of The hydraulic pressure when testing welded pipes is usually slightly higher than when testing seamless pipes.
A breakdown in a car can be compared to an unhealthy person, and a mechanic can be compared to a doctor. instead of A breakdown in a car can be compared to a human illness, and a mechanic can be compared to a doctor.
The reason for the illogicality may be the substitution of the concept:
It’s bad when all the cinemas in the city show the same movie title. In fact, it is not the title that is shown, but the film.
Hospitable hosts treat guests to a varied selection of national dishes(instead of various national dishes).
It’s frosty, but work is in full swing, because airport workers are tired of such a long period of non-flying weather(instead of workers are tired of forced inaction during bad weather.
What makes our speech illogical is the unjustified expansion or narrowing of the concept that arises as a result of the confusion of generic and specific categories:
At any time of the day, medicine should come to the child’s aid.(instead of to help the sick, after all, in medical care It’s not just children who need it).
With good care, each animal can produce 12 liters of milk.(instead of from each cow).
The use of words without taking into account their semantics can cause the expression to be illogical and even absurd:
I know that the ancestors of A. S. Pushkin are still alive(instead of descendants).
…And our Far Eastern birches stand in their wedding shroud(instead of veil).
It is necessary to eliminate defects in manufactured parts(instead of defects).
Distortions do not exceed 10%(instead of do not exceed).
The reason for the illogicality sometimes lies in the unclear distinction between concrete and abstract concepts:
We need to think about winter feed for public livestock farming(instead of for animals, for livestock).
We were told about the writer and read excerpts from his work(instead of from his works).
The New Year tree has become a favorite holiday of our childhood.(instead of our children).
