Which approach treats personality as a carrier. Approaches to the interpretation of personality structure

L. Feuerbach: Personality is a product of nature. Like you, I have an anthropological idea of ​​personality as a bearer of universal human properties.

Role theory of personality - ideas about personality as a system of role behavior under the influence of social expectations. (T. Parsons) sociological personality is considered primarily as an object and product of social relations. (E. Durkheim)

Existentialists: J.P. Sartre, K. Yaspersonalistic essence of personality in its absolute spiritual independence and uniqueness.

Individuality is defined as a set of traits that distinguish a given person from other people and determine the uniqueness of his psyche and personality. At birth, a person is limited only by the properties of his body (hair color, timbre of voice, skin pattern on the fingers, etc.) Acquiring new experiences and performing other social roles entail a further change in individuality. Characterized not only by unique properties, but also by the originality of the relationships between them

The concept of “personality” is not a person born as a result of the socialization of an individual, who assimilates the traditions and system of value orientations developed by mankind and corresponds to those of its properties that are socially typical and characterize it as a representative of many large and small groups.

A mature personality is characterized by: Integrity - a person behaves predictably in different conditions; Hierarchy; a person’s ability to manage his biological needs + active life position

properties that characterize a person as a biological organism; individuality; properties that are socially typical; personality; properties of a person that form the basis of his individuality.

Personality structure is a specific organization of qualities, abilities, motives, values ​​inherent in a given individual, forming his unique personality in various manifestations.

Personality structure according to Z. Freud EGO ID “pleasure principle” primitive, instinctive and innate aspects of personality, something dark, biological, chaotic, not knowing the laws, not obeying the rules. (from the Latin “I”) is the part of the psyche responsible for making decisions. The ego seeks to express and satisfy the desires of the id in accordance with the restrictions imposed by the external world. “executive organ” of the individual: the area of ​​intellectual processes and problem solving.

e t a l yuch - vk k b y V est bno st S o o s y s p e c k i t y ch ity, poured into the kre o cen k ban o am o nyh s ni e oral niknov y mz i vo twa vin feelings EGO – and deal. It is formed from the surroundings about what is highly valued, acquired or in a person; How to choose a standard for your high standards that must be met. And if the goal is achieved, it evokes a feeling of self-esteem and pride. Super - EGO

The superego is considered to be formed when parental control is replaced by self-control. The super-ego, trying to completely inhibit any socially condemned impulses on the part of the Id, tries to direct a person to absolute perfection in thoughts, words and actions. Tries to convince the Ego of the superiority of idealistic goals over realistic ones.

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Firstly, the individual is the subject of complex and contradictory processes in society. Secondly, society in its policies cannot fail to take into account the diverse interests and needs of the individual. Third, personality reflects the level of development of society achieved at this stage. IN-fourth, with the rapid development of the media and the emergence of new social and psychological technologies, the danger of their use for the purpose of manipulating individual behavior increases. One of the first to understand the new role of the individual as a dominant factor in historical development was A. Peccei, the head of the Club of Rome. Seven main approaches: dialectical-materialistic, anthropological, normative, sociological, personalistic, theory of the “mirror self,” biological-genetic.

Dialectical-materialistic approach .

According to this concept, personality development is a dialectical process determined by four factors: the biology of the individual, his social environment, upbringing and self-education skills. Man is initially a social being, his personality develops in the course of social activity, i.e. in the process of interaction with the social environment during education and reflection. Anthropological approach

. With this approach, a person is considered as a bearer of universal human properties, as a generic concept denoting a representative of the human race. Personality is likened to the concept of an individual.

Abstract anthropologism identifies the concepts of personality, man and individual. He ignores the determining role of the social environment as a factor in the formation of personality. Normative approach

. In it, “personality” is associated with a set of positive qualities (signs) related to human consciousness and activity. Sociological approach

. Its essence lies in the assertion that every person is a person due to the possession of certain socially significant traits. Personality is considered, first of all, as an object and product of social relations.

In the works of French sociologists E. Durkheim, L. Lévy-Bruhl and others, the principle of social conditioning of the psyche was developed. This approach prevails in sociology. Personality is considered as a specific expression of the essence of a person, a holistic embodiment and implementation in him of a system of socially significant traits and qualities of a given society. Personalistic approach

.

To some extent, as a counterbalance to anthropological and sociological approaches, there are attempts to understand and explain personality as some absolutely independent and individually unique integrity.

The personalistic interpretation of personality received its most complete expression in the concept of existentialism. According to it, the essence of personality is considered in its absolute spiritual independence and uniqueness.

Firstly, the personality must be considered from two sides at once: as an object and a subject, and not only social, but also biological relations. Both relationships regulate the behavior of the individual.

Secondly,Already in the very position of the object and product of biosocial relations, the individual faces the need to choose different models of social behavior.

Inconsistencies, contradictions and conflicts between biologically and socially programmed systems of individual behavior open up relative freedom to choose solutions.

Third,personality, being the object and subject of biosocial relations, combines the traits of the species (universal) with the social type of certain social communities.

Fourthly,both the universal and the social are refracted in a specific way in a person through his individual and unique characteristics.

In general, we can give the following definition: personality is an integral concept that characterizes a person as an object and subject of biosocial relations and unites in him the universal, socially specific and individually unique.

"Individuality" - this concept covers those specific natural and social qualities that have developed in a person on the basis of inherited biological prerequisites, his social status and upbringing.

« Individual"- is a single representative of a whole (biological species or social group).

The individual is the subject of social relations . She is a kind of particle of society. It specifically reflects all the phenomena of social life.

The individual is never absorbed into society. Personality is the total expression of the social qualities of an individual. IN personality structure researchers include: Individual consciousness is closely connected and determined by public consciousness. In relation to each person, social consciousness is objective; it acts as part of the social environment. From it the individual’s consciousness draws vital material. Value orientations personality is the social values ​​shared by the individual. By the latter we mean more or less.

generally accepted behavioral standards Personality culture acts as a set of social norms and values ​​that guide an individual in his activities. Social activities

is a way to realize the needs and interests of the individual. Each individual in society has his own social status and plays his .

social role. A type is understood as a generalized image, characteristic features of a certain group of people or patterns of models for groups of objects, phenomena and personalities.

Social personality type - this is a way for a person to carry out various types of activities, a certain set of personality properties that expresses the individual’s belonging to a social group.

The concept of social personality type captures the reflection of a set of recurring social qualities of individuals belonging to any social community.

In 1914 E. Spranger described six “ideal types” of personality, stipulating that they do not occur in their pure form, but are only trends. Here they are: 1) theoretical - desire for knowledge; 2) economic - search for usefulness and the desire to realize it; 3) aesthetic - desire for impression, experience and self-expression; 4) social - desire for communication, including love; 5) political - the will to power and the desire to obey it; 6) religious

- search for the highest meaning of life. Each of the tendencies has, according to Spranger, many degrees and forms of manifestation.Sociology distinguishes between a “basic” personality type and an “ideal” one.

, i.e. accordingly, the personality most characteristic of the given conditions, and the personality that best meets the given conditions. The difference between these personality structures is significant. The ideal, in principle, will never receive its final realization, but at any given moment it receives its embodiment in the basic type of personality.

Of course, in reality, the basic and ideal personality types are divided into many types. Such classifications may be based on various criteria. The most common criterion is the type of relationship between the individual and society. Or, in other words, personality orientation. E. Fromm , for example, distinguished two types of orientation: productive and unproductive

. Although he recognized the impossibility of identifying “pure” personality types and personal orientation, emphasizing the naturalness and regularity of their combination, with the dominant position of one of them.

Unproductive the personality is incapable of self-expression, because its dominant is a non-productive orientation. However, the negative impact of an unproductive orientation is smoothed out in a person with a productive orientation.

Productive a person is capable of changing his environment, of self-expression as a result of having a productive orientation. Riesman. An internally oriented personality has a characteristic that Riesman considers positive: the ability to maintain a balance between the needs for achieving one's life goals and the environment.

He also described another type of orientation, which he called " otherwise oriented type". A differently oriented person is able to respond to changes in the surrounding society.

Some domestic sociologists believe that the prevailing in the 30s. the form of socialist organization of public life gave rise to personality type corresponding to the command-administrative system.

This type is characterized by such traits as conformism, lack of autonomy, fear of conflicts, lack of focus on work results, lack of initiative, unwillingness to take risks, distrust of new things, hostility to change, intolerance to various deviations. Currently A new type of personality is being formed in Russia.

One of the first to understand the new role of the individual as a dominant factor in historical development was A. Peccei, the head of the Club of Rome. Seven Basic Approaches: dialectical-materialistic, anthropological, normative, sociological, personalistic, theory of the “mirror self,” biological-genetic.

Personality - object and subject, not only social, but also biological relations. 2) the individual faces the need to choose different models of social behavior.

3) combines the traits of a species (universal) with the social type of certain social communities. 4) both the universal and the social are refracted in a specific way in a person through his individual and unique characteristics. Personality

- this is an integral concept that characterizes a person as an object and subject of biosocial relations and unites in him the universal, socially specific and individually unique.

Individual, Individuality.Personality structure

- individual consciousness, value orientations, personal culture, social activity, social status, social. role.. In developed countries, marriage, which forms the basis of the family, is becoming equal and voluntary. Economic motives and pressure from “third parties” are minimal. Sociological studies conducted in our country show that about 40% of married men and about 50% of married women entered into a union for love, while the rest are dominated by other motives. Opportunities are created in the family for the professional and spiritual growth of its members, and the alienation of marriage from marriage is overcome. However, these and some other positive trends cannot reduce the severity of the crisis of the modern family.

Negative trendsprevail in the development of the modern family. A characteristic feature of the family is its instability: from 30 to 50% of marriages break up.

There is a tendency for family ties to weaken.Causes of family crisis multifaceted. Wives become less dependent on their husbands in an economic sense. Increased mobility, especially migration , also undermines the strength of family ties. Family functions are changing

. This is influenced not only by social, economic, cultural, religious and ethnic traditions, but also by the new technical and environmental situation. has taken on a massive scale cohabitation between a man and a woman without marriage . Even simple population reproduction does not occur. Reducing the number of children in the family has mixed consequences for the socialization of the child. Western researchers include the positive consequences of greater opportunities for direct contact between the child and his parents, thereby accelerating his intellectual development, enriching his speech, etc. The negative consequences are the lack of communication skills, which makes it difficult for young people to enter the world of adults. Developing family nuclearization process.

leads to weakening ties between generations. Reduces continuity of generations Family transformation is largely related to

the ever-increasing influx of women into the labor market . Integrated mechanization and automation of production, the introduction of robots and microprocessors have made it possible to reduce the scope of heavy physical labor. Women's economic activity is largely explained by the lack of funds to maintain an adequate standard of living for the family. This applies not only to the poorest segments of the population, but also to many families belonging to the “middle class”., their desire for independence and real equality with men in all spheres of public life.

All this leads to profound changes in family relationships and norms of behavior. A new relationship arises between a man and a woman.

This transformation as a whole is certainly progressive.. At the same time, it also creates a number of problems, as it makes the family less stable. Family breakdown hits children the hardest. A significant proportion of working women have young children.

In modern societies, the opinion is increasingly growing that it is necessary to create effective services to help families, not only the poor, but also the most ordinary ones.

Russian family.

- individual consciousness, value orientations, personal culture, social activity, social status, social. role.in family development are characterized by a number of features. Let's first name the positive ones. . In developed countries, marriage, which forms the basis of the family, is becoming equal and voluntary. Economic motives and pressure from “third parties” are minimal. Opportunities are created in the family for the professional and spiritual growth of its members, and the alienation of marriage from marriage is overcome.

Negative trendsprevail in the development of the modern family. A characteristic feature of the family is its instability: from 30 to 50% of marriages break up. There is a tendency for family ties to weaken.

There is a tendency for family ties to weaken. multifaceted.

Wives become less dependent on their husbands in an economic sense.

Increased mobility, especially migration.

Family functions are changing.

This is influenced not only by social, economic, cultural, religious and ethnic traditions, but also by the new technical and environmental situation.

- Cohabitation between a man and a woman without marriage.

- Reducing the number of children in the family. Even simple population reproduction does not occur.

- the process of nuclearization of families leads to a weakening of ties between generations. Reduces continuity of generations

- The number of women in the labor market is increasing

growth of social consciousness of womenIn world practice of working with families

Russian family.Although from the formal side, it seems that the family is not deprived of state attention.

Thus, a Committee on Family Affairs and Demographic Policy was created under the Council of Ministers of Russia. Currently, in the regions there are corresponding departments (committees) that work closely with committees for the social protection of youth. Departments for social protection of families and children operate at the municipal level.

Various departments are also creating their own systems of state and social assistance to the population with special tasks, functions and volumes. The vocational education system trains psychologists, social educators and social workers to work with families. Special programs and legal laws are dedicated to the family.

But all these events are often ritual in nature and their effectiveness is extremely low.- And the point is not only in poor executive discipline and insufficient material and financial support, but also in the weak scientific and methodological basis of this work, as well as the lack of necessary traditions and experience, the high prestige of motherhood and fatherhood. According to experts, every second young man graduates from school sick, and 70% of girls are not ready to have children in the future due to health reasons.

Social role of the individual

this is a set of social functions performed by it, determined by the position of a person and implemented in the process of his life.

Personal activity occurs in various spheres of life: material (economic), social, political, spiritual. In each of these spheres, the individual occupies a certain position and place. That is, in each area it plays a specific role. In real life, one person most often performs several social roles. The role theory of personality was actively developed by American sociologists Parsons, Mead, and others. Attempts to characterize personality within the framework of role theory are also popular in the works of domestic authors. Thus, I.S. Kon characterizes a person mainly through the main roles he performs.

Other authors define personality as “a unit in the system of social relations” (V.E. Davidovich) or as a measure of assimilation of social relations (P.E. Kryazhev)..

Social role is directly related to- social status Social status of the individual- This is an integral indicator of the social status of an individual, a social group, covering profession, qualifications, position, nature of the work performed, financial situation, political affiliation, business connections, age, marital status, etc.

The American sociologist R. Marton called all this a “status set.”

Social status is dividedto prescribed (assigned), i.e. received regardless of the subject, most often from birth (race, gender, age, nationality, etc.) and achieved (achieved), i.e. acquired through the individual's own efforts.

An individual may also have a mixed social status, combining the features of the two indicated. Typically, a person has several social statuses, but one of them is the main one (for example, position at the main place of work).Main activities coincide with the main spheres of public life - labor, social, political, spiritual, family, etc. . Activity may be individual, group, organized or spontaneous . Even criminal activity can be identified. However, if we consider the motives, content, goals and direction of activity, then it can be assessed as social and antisocial.

The latter is often characterized as antisocial behavior. The criterion for social activity is performance results, i.e. those changes in the existing situation that are achieved through the expenditure of energy correlated with public interests.

There are internal and external

The individual is never absorbed into society. Personality is the total expression of the social qualities of an individual. sources of social activity . Internal needs include material and spiritual needs, interests, consciousness, and level of culture. External - those conditions in which people live and act

The next condition is the place that “I” occupies in social life. It determines the possibility of action, self-affirmation and evaluation through the approval of actions from the immediate and more distant environment and, consequently, through the attitude of other individuals and social groups to the activity performed. “According to Marx, the main aspirations of the individual are the desire for “self-realization,” the free choice of one’s calling and the desire for “self-actualization” in collective life, in work for the good of society.”

Once formed in a dialectical clash, the personality structure of individuals becomes a dynamic element, an integral part of both interhuman relations and personal life.

That. a person’s personality is a projection of his decisions and choices - not as a stream of mental acts that follow each other and are independent of each other, but as a certain structure that always remains in heterogeneous relationships with the environment, constantly enriching itself.In this theory of personality, the most important condition for its development is relationships.

Those. The personality structure is represented by relationships with society, with nature and even with oneself. The dominant element is the individual’s activity relations. For example, the concept of personality development developed by S. Freud is based on the belief that the individual is always in a state of conflict with society. According to S. Freud, biological impulses contradict cultural norms, and socialization is the process of curbing these impulses. According to S. Freud, personality consists of elements that oppose the demands of society, and elements that meet these requirements. The dominant one.

What is at play here is not any specific element of the personality structure, but the interaction between them S. Freud is the first researcher who tried to build a clear personality structure. The element opposing the demands of society is ID, i.e. Unconscious. This element is a container for the sexual and aggressive needs of the individual. The element that meets the requirements of society is Superego– superI. This is a system of requirements imposed on an individual by society. The third element is Ego

– “I”, Conscious. "I" is called upon to regulate the relationship between, considering, or at least being sufficiently dependent on them. According to Mead, the process of personality formation includes three different stages, i.e. the consistent formation of its individual elements. The first is imitation. At this stage, children copy the behavior of adults without understanding it. This is followed by the play stage, when children understand behavior as the performance of certain roles; during the game they reproduce these roles. The transition from one role to another develops in children the ability to give their actions the meaning that other members of society give them - this is the next important step in the process of creating their own “I”. The third stage, according to Mead, stage of collective games.

When children learn to be aware of the expectations of not only one person, but of the entire group.

At this stage, a sense of social identity is acquired.

Personality structure is presented in the form of three elements and in the theory of Charles Harton Cooley. He believed that personality is formed on the basis of many interactions between people and the world around them. In the process of these interactions, people create their “mirror self”, which consists of the following elements:

how we think others perceive us (I'm sure people are paying attention to my new hairstyle)

how we think they react to what they see (I'm sure they like my new hairstyle)

how we respond to the perceived reactions of others (apparently I will always wear my hair like this).Because in this theory

Role theory

In sociology, a “social role” is most often understood as an impersonal norm or function associated with a certain social position and independent of the personal properties of the individuals occupying this position. “Role” is not a person, but rather the image behind which it is hidden.”

Leontiev defined a “role” as a program “that corresponds to the expected behavior of a person occupying a certain place in the structure of a particular social group,” as “a structured way of his participation in the life of society.” A “role” cannot in any way be an “image” of a person, otherwise one would have to admit that the individual exists not only outside of society, but even outside of his own social activity. After all, a “structured way of participating in the life of society” is nothing more than the structure of an individual’s activity.

When studying intrapersonal processesThe word “role” denotes a certain aspect, part, side of a person’s activity. Attention here is focused on how the individual himself perceives, recognizes and evaluates this or that function, activity, affiliation, what place it has in his “image of the Self”, what personal meaning he puts into it. To the individual himself, only such activity seems “role-playing”, which he perceives as something more or less external, peripheral or conditional, “played out” for others, in contrast to the “true I”, without which he cannot imagine himself. But regardless of whether an individual considers his work to be a craft, a vocation or even a mission, which is very important for himself and for the moral and psychological assessment of him as a person, sociologically in all cases he plays a certain professional role.

Any classification of social roles presupposesthe point of view of either society (group) or the individual, and takes into account both the degree of cruelty, the structuredness of the relevant relationships (“positional-status” or “situational”, “structural” or “socio-normative”, “conventional” or “interpersonal” roles), and and the level of individual effort required to obtain them (“prescribed,” “ascribed,” or “achieved” roles).

However, the social role itself does not determine the behavior of the individual. To do this, it must be assimilated and internalized by him. Internalized role- this is an individual’s internal determination of his social position and his attitude to this position and the circumstances arising from it.

A person’s perception and assessment of his social roles is to a great extent determined by his typical system of value orientations. Like role structure, they are both social and individual. They are social because they are connected and determined by the position of the person, as well as by the system of social perception, etc. The set of typical value orientations characteristic of an individual in a given society is called social character. At the same time, value orientations are individual, since they accumulate the unique life experience of a given person, the uniqueness of his interests and needs.

The very multiplicity of social roles inherent in a person makes everyone more or less autonomous from each of the roles separately.And although social roles and identities are a necessary component and starting point of self-categorization, neither the existential nor the reflective “I” can be reduced to them.

Firstly, different social identities and roles (say, professional and family) do not coincide and often contradict each other. Secondly, each “social role” is a relationship that its participants can and do define in different ways. Third, the individual’s attitude towards the roles performed is selective: some functions and activities are perceived as organic, central, inseparable from one’s own “I”, others – as more or less external, peripheral, “artificial”. But an individual’s self-esteem depends not only on the social prestige of his roles, but also on how he evaluates his success and effectiveness in fulfilling the main, personally significant roles.

That. The role approach to the formation and development of personality considers not only the structure of the personality itself, as a set of learned social roles, but also the structure of the relationships between these roles in each individual, and the structure of role relationships between different people.

Therefore, the role approach is a structural approach of sociology, although it is partly based on psychological concepts of personality.

Essential Approach

This approach is less popular than the structural one. Perhaps the reason is that the essence, due to its uniqueness for each individual, is much more difficult to identify. The structure can be viewed from different points of view, and in accordance with this, various elements can be identified.

Psychophysical approach

“Awareness of one’s gender is based, on the one hand, on somatic signs (body image), and on the other, on behavioral and characterological properties, assessed by the degree of their compliance or non-compliance with normative stereotypes of masculinity (masculinity) and femininity (femininity). Like all other children's self-esteem, they are derived from the assessment of the child by others, are multidimensional and often ambiguous.

Already preschoolers often have a problem with the relationship between assessing the degree of their muscularity or femininity and gender-role preferences.Identification theory Sex Typing Theory Self-categorization theory

based on the cognitive-genetic concept of the American psychologist L. Kohlberg, emphasizes the leading role of self-awareness: the child first learns gender identity, recognizes himself as a boy or a girl, and then coordinates his behavior with what seems to him to correspond to the accepted definition. In the light of the theory of gender typing, the logic of motivation for a child’s behavior is something like this: “I want encouragement. I am rewarded when I do boy things, so I want to be a boy,” and in light of self-categorization theory: “I am a boy, so I want to do boy things, and being able to do them is rewarding.”

This approach is used more by psychological science. It is rational to use it in relation to the initial stages of personality formation.

Thus, it is clear that personality can be viewed from different positions and using different approaches. There are internal and external But there is one general statement that is dominant in all approaches: personality does not exist outside of relationships between people. And therefore, the process of socialization of the individual is possible only through social relations.

The individual is never absorbed into society. Personality is the total expression of the social qualities of an individual. sources of social activity The most popular is .. It lies in the fact that personality is considered from the point of view of its components; in identifying ways of interaction between the components of personality; in identifying the dominant element of personality. the structural approach to the study of personality is used primarily in the works Those. The personality structure is represented by relationships with society, with nature and even with oneself. The dominant element is the individual’s activity relations.

The structural approach is used in many psychological theories of personality. For example, the concept of personality development developed by S. Freud is based on the belief that the individual is always in a state of conflict with society. The dominant one.

What is at play here is not any specific element of the personality structure, but the interaction between them – “I”, Conscious. "I" is called upon to regulate the relationship between The structural approach is also used in theory , considering personality as a product of social relations

, or at least sufficiently dependent on them. Personality structure is presented in the form of three elements and in the theory of Charles Harton Cooley. He believed that personality is formed on the basis of many interactions between people and the world around them. In the process of these interactions, people create their “mirror self.” Because in this theory personality acts as a random product, formed in interaction with other people; we can say that it is rather a socio-psychological understanding of personality

how we respond to the perceived reactions of others (apparently I will always wear my hair like this).. Therefore, this theory can serve as one of the foundations of the role theory of personality. Internalized role development suggests that a person’s personality “is nothing more than a system of social roles performed by a person in response to the demands and expectations of various social groups to which he belongs and in which he developed. However, the social role itself does not determine the behavior of the individual. To do this, it must be assimilated and internalized by him.

- this is an individual’s internal determination of his social position and his attitude to this position and the circumstances arising from it. That. role approach

Essential Approach formation and development of personality considers not only the structure of the personality itself, as a set of learned social roles, but also the structure of the relationships between these roles in each person, and the structure of role relationships between different people.

Psychophysical approach .

Already preschoolers often have a problem with the relationship between assessing the degree of their muscularity or femininity and gender-role preferences.There are theories that consider gender differences as a decisive factor in socialization, formation and development of personality, i.e. use a psychophysical approach. According to this approach, what attitudes will be adopted by a person depends on his gender and the assessment of others and self-assessment of his behavior according to his gender. Identification theory emphasizes the role of emotions and imitation, believing that the child unconsciously imitates the behavior of representatives of his sex, first of all, his parents, whose place he wants to take. Sex Typing Theory, based on the concept of social learning, emphasizes reinforcement mechanisms, whereby parents and others reward boys for behavior that is considered boyish and condemn them when they behave femininely, while girls receive positive reinforcement for feminine behavior and negative reinforcement. for muscular.

based on the cognitive-genetic concept of the American psychologist L. Kohlberg, emphasizes the leading role of self-awareness: the child first learns gender identity, recognizes himself as a boy or a girl, and then coordinates his behavior with what seems to him to correspond to the accepted definition.Family

is an association of people based on marriage or consanguinity, connected by a common life and mutual responsibility. The family is a social institution that performs the functions of a small group, realizing the need of society for the biological reproduction of its members and their socialization. As a small primary group, the family and family-kinship relationships are distinguished by deep intimacy, trust, and emotional attachment. Family being considered

as a social institution as a social group The basis of the family is the marriage union of a man and a woman. It is sanctioned by society

. Marriage

Its strength is ensured by internal and external forces. External are: law, religion, public opinion. Internal - mutual emotionality and economic interest.

Family functions: reproductive (reproduction functions);

sexual (it began to be singled out relatively recently);

economic and economic;

educational;

recreational (mutual help, health maintenance, organization

leisure and recreation);

communicative and regulatory, including social control and the implementation of power and authority of the family.

The family has its own structure.

It is usually understood as a system of relations between its members. The following types of relationships are distinguished: kinship, spiritual and moral, relations of power, authority, legal relations. Depending on the kinship structures there are different types of families. Nuclear family

- a type inherent in modern industrial society. This is a type of family organization, the distinctive feature of which is its small number: husband, wife, one or two children. The latter are not married.Family is complicated . characterized by the presence of a large number of children and relatives. This type of family also performs economic functions There are families full And incomplete. Exist repeated families that are based on remarriage. Depending on the nature of their leisure time, families can be divided into open , i.e. focused on a wide circle of contacts outside the family; closed

, when they are focused on indoor leisure. In Western sociology, the following additional families are distinguished: monogamous – marriage of one man with one woman; polygamous – marriage of one spouse with several – there are two types: polygyny - marriage between one man and several women, polyandry – a marriage between one woman and several men. - marriage between one man and several women, Fraternal - marriage of several brothers with one wife. - marriage between one man and several women, Sororal - marriage of several sisters with one husband. Exogamy – the selection of partners is carried out outside certain groups. Endogamy – marriages take place predominantly within certain groups. Patrimeneal and matrimeneal families where the inheritance of the surname, property, social status is traced through the father or mother. Homogeneous families – spouses from approximately the same social stratum. Heterogeneous families – spouses come from different social groups, castes, classes. Homogamous families are homogeneous in nationality, age, education, etc. Heterogamous families – there are differences in socio-demographic indicators. Patrilocal Matrilocal- newlyweds live with their wife's family. Neolocal- newlyweds live separately from their parents.

Family

Marriage is a historically changing form of relations between a man and a woman. Through it, society regulates and sanctions sexual life, establishes marital and parental rights and responsibilities. Monogamy, polygamy.

A family unites not only spouses, but also their children, as well as other relatives or simply those close to the spouses and the people they need.

Family functions : reproductive (reproduction functions); sexual (it began to be singled out relatively recently); economic; educational; recreational (mutual assistance, maintaining health, organizing leisure and recreation);

communicative and regulatory, including social control and the exercise of family power and authority.

Family structure - a system of relations between its members.Types of relationships: kinship, spiritual and moral, relations of power, authority, legal relations.

According to the structure of family ties: nuclear - complex,

Complete - incomplete; repeated

Leisure activities:open and closed

– marriage of one spouse with several – there are two types: - a marriage between one man and several women, polyandry - a marriage between one woman and several men. Fraternal polyandry- marriage of several brothers with one wife. Sororal polyandry- marriage of several sisters with one husband. Exogamy - the choice of partners is carried out outside certain groups. Endogamy - marriages take place primarily within certain groups. – marriages take place predominantly within certain groups.Andmatrimeneal families where the inheritance of the surname, property, social status is traced through the father or mother. families where the inheritance of the surname, property, social status is traced through the father or mother.– spouses from approximately the same social stratum. Heterogeneous families– spouses come from different social groups, castes, classes. Homogamous families are homogeneous in nationality, age, education, etc. Heterogamous families – there are differences in socio-demographic indicators.

based on the cognitive-genetic concept of the American psychologist L. Kohlberg, emphasizes the leading role of self-awareness: the child first learns gender identity, recognizes himself as a boy or a girl, and then coordinates his behavior with what seems to him to correspond to the accepted definition.Patrilocal, matrilocal, neolocal.- based on marriage or consanguinity

is an association of people based on marriage or consanguinity, connected by a common life and mutual responsibility. The family is a social institution that performs the functions of a small group, realizing the need of society for the biological reproduction of its members and their socialization. As a small primary group, the family and family-kinship relationships are distinguished by deep intimacy, trust, and emotional attachment. in cases where it is especially important to find out how much the image of the family and its functioning correspond or do not correspond to certain modern social needs. The model of the family as a social institution is extremely important for predicting future changes. Family being considered Family Analysis

has its own specifics. Family research in this case is focused on studying the conditions of its formation and stages of development. The process of family formation in this case is considered as a set of norms and standards of living, choice of a marriage partner, sexual behavior, relationships with the parents of future spouses and sanctions for failure to comply with certain norms, reasons and motives for divorce, etc.Organization management

- this is a special body, the main activity of which is to perform a certain set of functions aimed at providing organizational participants with goals and coordinating their efforts. This is a body that ensures the consistency of all elements of the organization and keeps deviations of individual parts and the organization as a whole from its goals within acceptable limits.:

· Control functions

· Activities of a leader and manager

· Integration of members, mutual support

· Resource Allocation

· Perception, filtering and distribution of information

· Negotiation

· Prevention of violations

Carrying out innovation

· · Planning

Control and direction of actions of subordinates

1. Three control components

2. targeted control action

3. social self-organization, i.e. spontaneous processes of internal regulation

organizational order - past management experience

- Management methods

- direct (orders, tasks)

- through motives and needs

- through the value system

through the surrounding social environment.

From a functionalist perspective, the family is viewed in terms of its functions or the social needs that it satisfies. Proponents of functionalism emphasize the changes in the functions of the family in the last two centuries; most of them argue that during this period the Western family lost its inherent functions.Family is a “social force” on a par with economic, social class, etc. Economic functions. Rural area - economy, i.e. economic unit; in the city - a waste of money. Transfer of status. In society, there are various customs and laws that more or less automatically secured the status occupied by families from different strata of society.

Socialization. Social welfare.Approaches to explaining family structure at various levels. Some researchers They focus on analyzing the distribution of power within the family, placing particular emphasis on the decision-making mechanism. Another point of view more focused on conflict, the family is seen as a microcosm of conflict in the "big" society. Modern version suggests that a true understanding of the essence of the family is not associated with an analysis of the emotional or family relationships between its members. Family is a place of struggle.

The interests of each family member conflict with the interests of other members and society as a whole. According to Hartmann, the author of this theory, women's heavier responsibilities at home are a form of exploitation that has developed within the capitalist-patriarchal system. In real

these two approaches are intertwined. And the task of sociologists is to determine the relative importance of many factors and to develop theories that explain their impact on families and individuals.What is the future of the family? This is not a simple question. There is no single answer to this. On this score there is two diametrically opposed points of view. The essence of the first is that under the influence of various aspects of development - a drop in the number of registered marriages, a decrease in the marriage rate, an increase in divorces -.

the family is losing its former role in society There are also opposite point of view

, according to which the family not only does not disappear, but also strengthens, since it serves as almost the only refuge that saves a person from social ills.

The reality is that society cannot be indifferent to the development of the family and its well-being. Otherwise, it itself is doomed to destruction.

1. There are different views on the problem of power. According to Weber, power is the ability for someone to exercise his will in the pursuit of goals of action within social relations, regardless of the resistance offered.

2. Means:

3. power is exercised by individuals and, as a consequence, involves choice, agency and intention.

4. The idea of ​​power is associated with the idea of ​​activity, i.e. about the individual's achievement of desired goals.

5. Power is exercised in relation to other individuals and can be associated with resistance and conflict.

Power implies differences in interests between those who have it and those who do not. Power is negative; it leads to deprivation and restriction of the activities of subordinates. However,

The individual is never absorbed into society. Personality is the total expression of the social qualities of an individual. Marxist sociology power is seen as a structural relationship that exists independently of the will of individuals. The existence of power is seen as a consequence of the class structure of society. Power is the ability of one class to realize its interests as opposed to other classes. Those. power:

1. cannot be separated from economic and class relations.

2. Involves class struggle rather than simply conflicts between individuals

3. An analysis of power is impossible without considering the mode of production

In American sociologypower is defined as the positive social ability to achieve the goals of a community. Power is something widely dispersed throughout society rather than concentrated within a ruling elite. This is a pluralistic approach.

Authority- This is the subtype of power in which people readily obey orders because they consider the exercise of power legitimate. Weber identifies three types of authority - legal-rational, traditional and charismatic. In modern sociology, the concept of authority is often used to refer to the influence exercised by management, which is not the original meaning of the term.

Leadership - influence or possession of power in social groups. Modern management represents leadership based on technical or professional competence. Three types of leadership correspond to three types of authority.

Leadership stylemay be authoritarian or democratic.

The concept of “youth” is usually defined in three dimensions: biological, psychological and sociological.Researchers most often start from various combinations of these dimensions, highlighting one of them. For example, the Polish sociologist I. Halasinski, ignores biological and psychological factors, when defining youth, believes that “youth is not a natural physiological and hormonal state, but an element of culture, social “institutionalization.” Youth, like wisdom, gender and beauty, is a social value, which is formed in a variety of ways, depending on the structure and culture of society.

Some scientists, on the contrary, exaggerate biological and psychological factors in defining youth. Thus, the German sociologist F. Tenbruck writes that youth is “a certain age, characterized by biological and psychological relationships, and, as a result, by all the characteristics of the age class.” The specifics of youth are determined two main features: adolescence and a special social state.

The age boundaries of youth are delineated, on the one hand, by the end of childhood, and on the other, by the onset of social maturity.

There are different points of view on age limits youth age.

For example, Pythagoras suggests that people between the ages of 20 and 40 be classified as youth, the Russian demographer A. Roslavsky - from 15 to 30 years, and the American demographer Bowes - from 9 to 17 years. It is widely believed that young people are those between 16 and 24 years old. In Luxembourg and France, the upper age limit for young people is 31 and 25 years. In most other industrialized countries in Europe it is 18 years.

In recent decades, there has been a process of lengthening the period of youth. This phenomenon is associated with the expansion of the degree of freedom and independence of young people and the lengthening of their education.

Determined not only by age, but also by her social condition. It is characterized by an active dominant. During the period of youth there is a process of active formation of the social maturity of the individual. The younger generation enters the socio-economic, socio-political and cultural life of the subject of social relations through socialization. Let us recall that socialization is the process of assimilation of social roles, as a result of which a person turns into a member of his contemporary society. He gains social maturity.

Social maturity is determined by several criteria: completion of education, acquisition of a profession, start of work, economic independence, political and civil adulthood, responsibility for one’s actions, marriage, birth of the first child.

Youth is an integral social group. At the same time, it is internally complex and differentiated. The differentiation criteria are not limited to age alone. Let's highlight youth groups by origin (from workers, employees, intelligentsia, etc.), at the place of residence (urban, rural), by social status (young workers, young entrepreneurs, young scientists, etc.), by type of main occupation

(school youth, students, etc.), by subculture. In the latter case, the criterion for differentiation is the differences and characteristics of certain groups of young people in their lifestyle and lifestyle, the nature of values, orientations and attitudes.

Among its integrating features, one can highlight the commonality of socio-psychological qualities. TO socio-psychological characteristics youth include the following:

unselfishness and responsiveness.Unselfishness and responsiveness are characteristic of a young soul, not yet burdened with an overly rational approach to the world around him;

special emotional sensitivity. Its origins are in the natural ability of a person to perceive and feel the world around him, to react to it emotionally;

thirst for innovation .

Young people grasp new ideas more keenly and readily and are their best guides.She is not inclined to compromise.- striving for ideal

.Idealize, desire to live in perfect and harmonious relationships

this is also more characteristic of young age; desire for maximum manifestation of strength. It is associated with the general increased energy activity of a young person, when doing something half-heartedly seems unnatural

Youth

– the most important period of personality formation, which has a significant impact on the entire subsequent life path of a person. During the years of youth, a person is distinguished by the ability to assimilate a huge flow of information. He learns the most important skills for living in society. high social dynamism.

This is due to the peculiarities of personality development. Young people are one of the most economically vulnerable sections of the population.The concept of “youth” is usually defined in three dimensions: biological, psychological and sociological. There are different points of view on

Youth is an integral social group. At the same time, it is internally complex and differentiated. The differentiation criteria are not limited to age alone. age limits youth age. For example, Pythagoras suggests that people between the ages of 20 and 40 be classified as youth, the Russian demographer A. Roslavsky - from 15 to 30 years, and the American demographer Bowes - from 9 to 17 years. It is widely believed that young people are those between 16 and 24 years old. In Luxembourg and France, the upper age limit for young people is 31 and 25 years. In most other industrialized countries in Europe it is 18 years. Specifics of youth as a social group at the place of residence determined not only by age, but also by her social status. It is characterized by an active dominant. During the period of youth there is a process of active formation of the social maturity of the individual. youth groups for (young workers, young entrepreneurs, young scientists, etc.),(school youth, students, etc.), by subculture. In the latter case, the criterion for differentiation is the differences and characteristics of certain groups of young people in their lifestyle and lifestyle, the nature of values, orientations and attitudes.

TO socio-psychological characteristics of young people The following can be included:

unselfishness and responsiveness.

Special emotional sensitivity. Passion for innovation. Striving for ideal.

Striving for maximum use of strength. Based on the above, we can conclude that young people are a complex social entity. It is difficult to give it a universal definition. In the most general terms, youth are a generation of people going through the stage of socialization, acquiring educational, professional and civic functions and being prepared by society to fulfill the social roles of an adult.In the new economic, social, spiritual and moral situation in Russia, dynamic and profound changes in the social characteristics of young people are taking place. Today, differentiation processes prevail among young people. Moreover, differentiating factors appear more clearly than integrating factors. First of all, a new theoretical framework is needed,

a new paradigm in the study of social youth problems. Young people increasingly moved to the periphery of social life. There was open exploitation of the best qualities of young people - enthusiasm, initiative, energy, idealism.In the public consciousness there is still a widespread understanding of youth as a time of preparation for life, i.e., willingly or unwillingly

it is ignored that youth is life . This creates a breeding ground for the formation, distribution and rooting in consciousness youth of infantilistic, dependent sentiments.

Currently there are a large number . youth social problems

. . The disclosure and self-realization of personality, social status, i.e. depend on the successful solution of these problems.

place and position in society, satisfaction of material and spiritual needs. . Family and marriage problems

Many reasons for negative phenomena among young people are due to the difficulties of family life, especially the lack of attention of society to young families. The introduction of market relations and the strengthening of the role of economic levers leads not only to positive phenomena, but also to an increase in unemployment among young people, a reduction in contacts within the family, and an increase in tension within them (due to the intensification of labor, lengthening the working day, etc.). Problems of spiritual, intellectual development

. The most dangerous thing, some well-known sociologists believe, in the current state of Russian society is not the economic and social crises or even conflicts, but the growing feeling of spiritual emptiness, meaninglessness, futility, and the temporary nature of everything that is happening, which is affecting more and more layers of Russians. For the purposeful and effective implementation of state policy, it is important to highlight in it.

main priorities

These include the following:

respect for the rights and freedoms of young people;

ensuring guarantees in the field of labor and employment of the younger generation;

support for a young family;

guaranteed provision of social services, creation of favorable conditions for the development of talented youth;

supporting the activities of youth associations.The main thing in youth policy

– to equalize the opportunities for a social start for different categories of youth, creating conditions for their development. The Australian Aborigines or African Bushmen, living according to primitive laws, do not have cultural institutions..

But they have something that unites them with the most civilized peoples of the world - belief and value system Among

Culture is also considered as a qualitative state of society at each stage of its development, more specifically and more fully expressed in the achieved level of development of productive forces, production relations, material and spiritual production, science, art, education, upbringing, etc.

Culture and society.

Culture and nature. Transmission of cultural values ​​and norms from generation to generation. there is cultural reproduction Spiritual production

- a special form of spiritual activity, separated into a separate sphere, a “branch” of production.

The influence of the culture of society on the individual is not carried out directly and directly, but through the cultural environment in which the individual is included. Under cultural environment

is understood as a set of material and personal factors that directly surround a person and actively influence his activity in consuming and creating cultural values Culture

– is a manifestation of the active and practical unity of man, society and nature. Accordingly, the level of its development is determined by the degree of unity of society and nature. To the main functions of culture

The following can be included:

2. 1. Cognitive. This function is manifested in the fact that culture acts as a way, a method for the value development of reality. The mastery of reality is embodied in the practical activities of people (in production, everyday life, political, scientific, educational activities). This logically follows another function of culture – practically transformative.

3. Practical-transformative. Designed to organize, determine the content and direction of people's practical activities.

4. Regulatory, normative. Culture, through social norms, values, traditions, and knowledge, creates stable social conditions for people’s lives, organizes experience and regulates the behavior of people in society and a particular social group. Therefore, most researchers do not classify the random and sporadic as culture.

5. Culture performs the function of human socialization. It is the most important means of his formation as a member of society, a subject of activity, and social relations. Culture fosters responsibility for internal, moral limitations. At the same time, in the process of socialization, individuality and uniqueness of the individual are formed.

6. Hedonistic. Culture acts as a means of entertainment, aesthetic and moral satisfaction.

Since the 18th century. In relation to culture, two lines can be distinguished: first- positive outlook on culture, second- anti-cultural.

Enlightenment concepts of culture.

These concepts arose and were actively developed by European thinkers (A. Voltaire, G. Vico, S. L. Montesquieu, I. V. Goethe, I. G. Herder, F. Schiller) in line with the Enlightenment. In culture they saw the inner spiritual wealth of man, based on his constant striving for truth, goodness, and beauty.

Evolutionist approach to culture .

In the second half of the 19th century. Evolutionism has become widespread in explaining the nature of culture and other social phenomena. It found its justification in the works of sociologists O. Comte, G. Spencer, E. Durkheim, ethnographers E. Taylor and L. Morgan and other major scientists of that period. Key Ideas classical evolutionism boil down to the following:

1. Both natural and social phenomena are subject to permanent, regular or partial changes.

2. In the course of these changes, society moves away from its original primitive or simplified state and acquires a more complex and differentiated character. In content, evolution means

the growth of rationality in society.

In accordance with this, chaos, conflict, prejudice and blind faith are eliminated.

6. 3. The stages of evolution can be arranged on a scale from “savagery” and “barbarism” to the highest level of civilization. This highest level is invariably embodied by the newest West. 4. In the course of evolution, all aspects of society are constantly improved, including art, morality, beliefs and cults. Any changes in morality, literature, art, according to the logic of evolutionism, lead to the better; they mean development as complication, enrichment in content, form, etc.

5. Certain elements of the early state may remain for the time being as remnants. adaptation to external conditions, and later - mastery of these conditions and their subordination, transition to a higher level of existence.

Diffusionism. At the beginning of the 20th century. In contrast to evolutionism, a number of sociologists and ethnologists developed the concept of diffusionism.

This approach made it possible to study the process of spreading culture from one center to another, the interaction of cultures, and reveal the mechanism for mastering the achievements of other peoples.

Marxism about culture.

By culture in the broad sense of the word, Marxism understood the entire set of material and spiritual values, without which a person cannot live and develop as a social subject. Culture is everything that was created and is being created as a result of his mental labor and that constitutes, as it were, a “second nature”, different from naturally occurring natural processes and phenomena, characterized by the fact that people change and educate themselves.Structural-functional

the approach viewed culture as a subsystem of an integral socio-cultural structure.

In it, each element plays a kind of service role in the overall regulatory system.:

Basic postulates of functionalism

1. There is a general functional unity of society. It is expressed in the interconnection of social and cultural structures.

2. Culture is an integrated whole, in which each element meets a specific need of the whole whole, performing a specific part of the job.

3. Differentiation of functions is supported by differentiation of structures that form an ordered system.

4. It is the constant maintenance of all elements of culture (production skills, rituals, norms, etc.) that ensures the unity of society.Radical left and avant-garde concepts

. These concepts are widespread in social thought today. Their main content is a sharp criticism of modern Western society, its existing social structure and culture, and the denial of institutional science. They put it in the center

the problem of human alienation from society, nature and himself.

The influence of the culture of society on the individual is not carried out directly and directly, but through the cultural environment in which the individual is included. The presence of many concepts of culture is confirmation that culture, being an integral social phenomenon, is formed from the infinite variety of its constituent elements and relationships. In this regard, it is apparently correct to assume that it is impossible to create some kind of universal concept of culture. most often understand the set of requirements and expectations that a social community (group), organization, class and society imposes on its members in order to carry out activities (behavior) of the established pattern.

A social norm is one of the complex forms of expression of social relations. It consists of many elements, each of which has different properties that can also change over a fairly wide range. The social norm embodies the public will, a conscious social necessity. This is precisely why it differs from the so-called quasi-norms . The latter are most often of a rude, violent nature, fettering initiative and creativity.

The social norm performs the following functions: socializes the individual; motivates and evaluates behavior; unifies activities; socially oriented; aligns interests and controls.

Main public purposesocial norm can be formulated as regulation of social relations and behavior of people. Regulating relationships through social norms ensures voluntary and conscious cooperation of people.

The following groups of norms can be roughly distinguished: those maintaining order, economic norms , Political norms, Cultural norms, Legal norms . There are formal and informal norms. The norms of morality, ethics and fashion occupy an intermediate position. Norms can be classified by scale of action, by significance, by the nature of the requirement and target function.

In outline the process of formation and functioning of social norms can be conventionally presented in the form of sequentially interconnected stages.

First stage is the emergence and constant development of norms. Second – understanding and assimilation by the individual of the system of social norms of society, a social group, an individual, in other words, this is the stage of inclusion of a person in society, his socialization. Third stage – real acts, specific behavior of the individual. This stage is the central link in the mechanism of social-normative regulation. It is in practice that it is revealed how deeply social norms have entered the consciousness of an individual. The fourth stage The process of functioning of the norm is the assessment and control of human behavior. At this stage, the degree of compliance or deviation from the norm is identified. In the latter case, society applies certain sanctions.

Types of sanctions – negative or positive, i.e. punishment or reward.

Unlike the norms that are followed, values ​​imply the choice of one or another object, state, needs, goals that have a higher existence. Values ​​are what is valued, what is significant for a person, what determines the life guidelines of his behavior and is recognized by society as such.

In Parsons's framework of "structural functionalism", social order depends on the existence of common values ​​shared by all people, which are considered legitimate and binding, serving as the standard by which the goals of action are selected. The connection between the social system and the personality system is carried out through the internalization of values ​​in the process of socialization.

Values ​​change along with the development of society. They are formed based on needs and interests , however, they are not copied. Values ​​are not a cast of needs and interests, but an ideal representation that does not always correspond to them.

Positive motivations are based on values ​​that are mastered by the individual and become value orientations, guiding his consciousness and behavior.

Despite the ambiguous interpretation of the concept of “value orientations,” all researchers agree that value orientations perform an important function as regulators of individuals’ social behavior.

is closely connected and determined by public consciousness. In relation to each person, social consciousness is objective; it acts as part of the social environment. From it the individual’s consciousness draws vital material.– a product of the socialization of individuals, i.e. mastering socio-political, moral, aesthetic ideals and immutable normative requirements imposed on them as members of social groups, communities and society as a whole. Value orientations are one of the most stable characteristics of a person. They form a kind of internal core of culture and determine the line of behavior of the individual.

conditionally ordered classification of values: vital, economic, social, political, moral, environmental, religious, aesthetic.

A hierarchy from lower to higher values ​​is possible.

N. I. Lapin offers its own classification of values, based on the following grounds:

By subject content(spiritual and material, economic, social, political, etc.);

By roles in an individual's life(terminal and instrumental);

By functional orientation(integrating and differentiating, approved and denied);

By needs of individuals(vital, interactionist, socialization, life meaning);

By type of civilization(values ​​of societies of the traditional type, values ​​of societies of the modernity , human values).

The settlement is the most important socio-territorial community

Settlement is a special type of social relationship related to settlement.

Underresettlement implies, on the one hand, the process of historically developing accommodation of people on the territory world, country, region, locality, on the other hand - spatial form of organization of society, its territorial structure at a certain point in development.

The main forms of human settlement are city and village, which arose and are reproduced under conditions of social division of labor. The main trends in the development of settlement in modern society are set by law concentration and increasing variety of activities.

Agglomeration is a network of urban and rural settlements. This and other forms of settlement increase opportunities for access to scientific, industrial and cultural information; to choose a job of any complexity and social significance; to access a variety of activities. (I’ll talk about agglomeration in more detail later.)

The settlement must be considered from at least two interrelated aspects.

First – a settlement as an internally integral organism, a constantly functioning territorial-social system.

Second - settlement as part of a larger territorial social system of the region and the country as a whole.

Based on the structurelies a territorial community of people (society), united by place of residence, community interests, long-term goals of living together, historical traditions of development, spiritual and moral reasons, and others.

Modern cities are the largest artificial habitats created by man.

City – a historically specific socio-spatial form of existence of society.

Reasons for the emergence of the cityvery diverse:

economic (production, trade, transport, etc.);

political (administration, military center, etc.);

natural-geographical (location, presence of minerals, etc.).

Cities serve numerous functions. The main ones are the following: 1) social unit of society (group); 2) socio-territorial community;

3) the social environment of people's life.

Settlement communities are not homogeneous. First of all, they are divided into two large groups: city and village.

An important feature of settlements is their size. There are small settlements, medium and large cities., for example, suburbanites develop complex connections with the city.

Communities also vary by population density or degree of concentration of people in certain areas. For example, communities sometimes do not occupy the entire territory belonging to it, but are densely concentrated in relatively small areas (N. Smelzer).

Communities vary according to the duration of its existence.

Features of technical development can leave their mark on the settlement community. So, before the invention of the car, people tended to live close to each other. Residential buildings, churches, and shops were concentrated along the central square or village street.

American sociologist L. Shnore proposes to classify communities according to the composition of the population, i.e. by age and occupation of their residents.

Settlement communities differ in lifestyle and social mobility.

Park, Burgess, and other urban ecologists have noted two processes here: invasion and succession. The first means invasion, the second means inheritance. Their analysis helps explain the reasons why groups of people of different incomes, as well as representatives of racial and ethnic groups, move to different areas of the city.

Centralization theory.

According to it, settlement communities are formed when they are forced to trade in a certain central location, work together in a large factory, or exercise centralized control over a large territory.Concentric zone hypothesis

. (I have already spoken about this theory earlier. Let me briefly remind you about its essence.)

This theory deals with the distribution of towns and cities within a county.

According to the concentric zone hypothesis, city development is accompanied by the formation of concentric rings, or zones. Each ring contains certain economic and residential structures.

The city has the following main zones, starting from the center.

Central District.

Mixed zone.

Working area.

Residential area of ​​the middle class.

Privileged zone.

Agricultural areas located near the city. Areas remote from the city.

Sector theory.

She focuses on analyzing long-term changes occurring in cities. . He gave a definition of urbanism based on three features that characterize this concept: the size of urban areas, density and heterogeneity of the population.

Composition theory. Worlds. Wirth's theory. He gave a definition of urbanism based on three features that characterize this concept: the size of urban areas, density and heterogeneity of the population..

Subculture theory.

Domestic - urbanists and de-urbanists The category “ethnicity” (the Greek word is “ ethnos

"") means a tribe, a people and is defined as a stable set of people historically established in a certain territory, possessing common features and characteristics of culture (including language, customs, traditions, self-knowledge, etc.)Formation of ethnos usually occurs on the basis of the unity of territory and economic life, but in the process of further development, many ethnic groups lose their common territory. Signs expressing systemic properties

of an already existing ethnic group and separating it from another ethnic group are language, folk art, customs, traditions, norms of behavior, habits, i.e. components of culture that are passed on from generation to generation and form the so-called ethnic culture, which has a style specific to it. . One type of ethnic group is race

The human race is a historically established areal group of people connected by a unity of origin, which is manifested in a special combination of such hereditary biological characteristics as skin color, facial features and body features.

Social scientists believe that there is no such thing as race based on objective biological differences. They believe that race is formed on a social basis or based on imagined biological characteristics that distinguish it from other groups.

Thus, race is a social concept that results from the attribution of characteristic biological characteristics to a group.

Along with race, there are also such ethnic communities as clan (clan), tribe, nationality, nation. They are adjacent to national (ethnic) and ethnographic groups.

A characteristic feature of the clan and tribe as the earliest form of communal organization is that they were based on consanguineous ties.

All the peoples of the world have passed through this initial stage of development.

With the decomposition of the feudal system and the emergence of capitalism, a new form of community of people arises - the nation.

Ethnic (national) identity- a reflection of the consciousness of a nation and other ethnosocial community in the individual consciousness of their members, expressing the result of the latter’s assimilation of ideas about the historical experience, state and prospects for the development of their people (ethnic group), their values ​​and norms, as well as their place and role among other peoples and relationships between them.

The roots of nationalism and national feelings are at the level of the “collective unconscious”. Over the course of its entire thousand-year history, a particular ethnic group has accumulated myths, symbols, memories, and stereotypes associated with the perception of another nation or nationality.

They are often associated with insult or humiliation of national dignity.

By themselves, they may or may not lead to ethnic conflicts. It's all about the historical situation After the October Revolution, the center (Russia) seemed to “shake up the backward outskirts,” and the periphery was mobilized. This is the result of the official policy of the Soviet regime, Aizenstadt believes. Industrialization crushed underdeveloped nations in the past. As a result, the periphery turned out to be quite closely connected with the center, and its most active representatives were admitted to the elite strata of the rapidly growing Soviet bureaucracy. A contradiction arose between the relatively high level of development of the elite of the periphery and attempts to drive it into passive obedience through political means. This is how a mine was planted under the building of the USSR. A similar prospect, according to the author, threatens Russia itself (see: Sociology: Course of lectures for technical universities. Yekaterinburg, 1994).

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Our site runs on pure enthusiasm. We do not require registration or money for downloading books. This is how it was and how it will always be. But to place a website on the Internet, funds are required - hosting, domain name, etc.

Please do not remain indifferent - help us maintain the existence of the site. Any help would be greatly appreciated. Thank you! SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY OF PERSONALITY1. The concept of personality in scientific research.: 1) Currently, in the scientific literature there is no common understanding and, accordingly, definition of the essence of personality. You can select 2) three main approaches to the interpretation of personalities 3) ness

anthropological; The anthropological approach to defining the concept of personality is characterized by the idea of ​​the latter as a bearer of universal human properties. Personality in this case is considered only as a speciesa concept denoting a representative of the human racewhom "homo sapiens", and is likened to the conceptindividual.

At one time, the anthropological approach to man found its classical expression in the works of L. Feuerbach, who considered him as a product of nature, while ignoring the entire diverse context of social relations of the individual.

Essentially all classical behaviorism, which considers a person as a kind of biosomatic principle that reacts in a certain way to environmental stimuli, takes the position of abstract anthropology.

Sociological approach. The principle of social conditioning of the psyche was put forward by Saint-Simon. From a sociological perspectivethe individual is viewed primarily asobject andproduct of social relations, cultural and historical development. K. Marx said that “personality is not an abstraction inherent in an individual, in its reality it is a set of social relations.” This approach was developed in the works of the French sociologist E. Durkheim, ethnologist and philosopher L. Lévy-Bruhl and psychologists T. Ribot, C. Blondel, Halbwachs, J. Piaget. The main disadvantage of this approach is that the personality here is deprived of activity and subjectivity.

The evolution of the very concept of personality (person) from the designation first of a mask, then of an actor and, finally, of his role gave impetus to the development of ideas about personality as a system of role behavior, determined by a set of social expectations and expectations. This was expressed, in particular, in the role theories of personality developed by American psychosociologists Parsons, Mead and others.

Personalistic approach. To some extent, as a counterbalance to anthropological and sociological approaches that consider personality as a function of biosomatic or social programs, There are attempts to understand and explain personality as some absolutelyindependentnew and individually unique integrity.

In an effort to emphasize the complete autonomy of the individual, the focus of his interests, will and rights, first of all, and only on himself, the founder of American pragmatism, psychologist W. James, in his time considered the individual as the result and embodiment of ownership of his body and abilities, family and products their activities, their creativity and material well-being.

The personalistic interpretation of personality received its most complete expression in the concept of existentialism, which sees the essence of personality in its absolute spiritual independence and uniqueness. The environment that surrounds a person - nature and social relations - creates the “inauthenticity” of a person’s existence and prevents him from escaping into his unique inner world. Thrown into the modern industrial world of things, a person loses his individuality, dissolving his “I” in the mass.

However, the ideas developed in the works of Heidegger, Sartre, Jaspers and other major representatives of existentialism do not provide a sufficiently reasoned idea of ​​the individual in general, although they reveal many shadow sides of the individual’s existence in the conditions of modern capitalist society.

Those authors who believe that personality does not fall within the scope of interests of a sociologist are also inclined to identify personality with individuality, since the latter is not interested in the individual uniqueness of people, but in social types.

As is obvious, in this case, for some reason, the possibility of combining in a person the properties of a social type with elements of individual originality and uniqueness is excluded. It seems to us that one does not exclude the other at all.

The tendency of a one-sided interpretation of personality, consisting in reducing the concept of personality to its social position, as well as to the totality of its social relations, functions and roles and leading to an underestimation of the integrity and relative independence of its mental world, self-awareness and uniqueness, does not provide grounds for the other extreme, consisting in the absolutization of the individual uniqueness of the individual.

The desire to consider a personality only as a set of unique mental processes, properties and states, regardless of its social status, functions and roles, is equally limited in its capabilities.

Integral definition of personality. All of the above does not exclude the possibility and legitimacy of different approaches to the study and characterization of personality.

In their own way, both anthropological and sociological and personalistic approaches to the study of the problem under consideration are legitimate, but only to the extent that they reflect the actual place, meaning and role in the personality of universal, socially specific and individually unique principles.

But the approach is one thing, and the definition of personality is another. Not every approach provides grounds for formulating a generalized definition. But in this particular case, none of the considered approaches provides such grounds.

It is impossible not to take into account the fact that, being at the same time both an object and a subject of biosocial relations, a person also combines the traits of a species (universal) with the socially specific properties of a species or, which in this case is the same, a social type, since it is bearer of the characteristics of certain social communities.

Finally, both the universal and the socially specific are refracted in a person through his individual and unique characteristics.

Thus, in general, the following definition can be proposed: personality- Thisan integral concept that characterizes a person as an object and subject of biosocialal relations and the universal humanity that unites in it,socially specific and individually unique.

2. Social and psychological structure of personality

B.D. Parygin talks about two main parameters of the socio-psychological model of personality - static and dynamic.

With an integral, that is, the most generalized approach, hundredtical structure personality can be considered as consisting of three main layers: 1) universal, biosocial; 2) socially specific; 3) individually unique. The main feature of a static structure remains its abstraction from the real process of dynamics and formation of personality, from its specific historical mental state and behavior.

Dynamic personality structure fixes the main components in the individual’s psyche no longer in their abstraction from the everyday existence of a person, but, on the contrary, only in the immediate context of human activity. At each specific moment of his life, a person appears before the researcher not as a set of certain formations, but as a person who is in a certain mental state, which in one way or another is reflected in the momentary behavior of the individual.

Under the dynamic structure of personality we meanthe model of a person’s mental state and behavior changescentury, which allows us to understand the mechanisms of relationship andinteraction between all components and structuresny layers in the individual’s psyche.

Basic parameters of the static structure of personality.

General human mental properties of the individual. The universal human mental properties of an individual are historically the first and, therefore, fundamental formations of the social psychology of the individual.

Universalin the human psyche is:

availability of the necessary complexbasic mental processes(sensation, perception, memory, thinking, will) and withpositions that obey the psychophysiological principles common to all peoplelogical mechanisms, without which there can be no talkabout the mental activity of the individual;

fact biosocial determination of the human mental worldka, the manifestation of which- suchstable traits and yourpersonality traits, like its temperament and character);

factsociality of the human psycheunlike psianimal hiccups.

This circumstance finds its expression in the most elementary act of mental activity of people, in sensations, since they reflect specifically human social experience. The eagle, as we know, sees further than man, but man sees much more than the eagle, noticing aspects and properties of natural and social phenomena that are revealed only in practical, human activity.

Socially specific experience. Along with the universal human experience, it is necessary to distinguish between the socially specific experience of the individual. Here we mean all those features of the individual’s psyche that are associated with the fact of his belonging to one or another social community or set of social communities (ethnic, class, political, ideological, economic, professional, national, etc.).

Behind a person’s belonging to a particular community or group of communities there is a certain program of behavior prescribed from the outside, which finds expression in a system of requirements, norms, rules and patterns of activity. They are usually distinguished by the functions they perform on roles, norms, values ​​and symbols .

What these elements of a person’s socially specific experience have in common is that they all perform certain functions, authorizing, regulating, regulating and directing the individual’s behavior.

Social roles - Thisprescribed by societyin general, specificssocial organization or a specific collectivestu groupsthe rights and responsibilities of the individual that youcabins from her social position.

Each of the roles arising from a certain status of a person, in turn, represents a whole set of rights and responsibilities in relation to the people around the individual in a particular situation. Thus, a person playing the role of a doctor is obliged to take care of the patient’s health, make a diagnosis in a timely manner, apply necessary and effective treatment measures, be attentive, responsive, humane, etc. At the same time, the doctor also has a number of rights.

The roles of an individual are very diverse; a person is, as a rule, simultaneously the father of a family, a member of a production team, a member of a friendly company, etc. As a result, a certain “knot” of rights and responsibilities of the individual is formed, which arise from a set of roles and form it social field of activity.

The latter is a whole system of norms and patterns of behavior arising from the role structure of the individual. The most important component of the socio-psychological structure of a personality is its.self-awarenessThe essence of self-awareness consists in the ability andskillman to separate himself from the toughand quite stereotypicalboth social and biologicalbehavior programs,which characterizes him only as an object of biosocial

relationships. The attitude towards one’s “I”, awareness of one’s individuality is often put on a par with the concept of individual self-awareness. Meanwhile, the concept personality self-awarenessfar from being covered by her awareness of her individuality, but presupposes

awareness of a wide range of one’s relationships with social

al world. In this regard, it is legitimate to talk about the socially specific self-awareness of the individual. The latter is manifested primarily in how a person understands his specific social position. This implies the ability to separate oneself from externally sanctioned norms and rules of behavior. But not in order to try to rise above them in general, but only in order to give preference to one of the systems of social orientations. If you try to characterize main aspects with socially-specific self-awareness, then, in our opinion, they can be reduced to the following: firstly, to, awareness an individual of his social statusimplying a correlation of this position with the social position of other people different from this individual in their status; secondly, toindividual's awareness.

In turn, each of the two points mentioned above requires a more detailed division into its components. Thus, an individual’s awareness of his social position presupposes both national and class status;

both ethnic, including community, and professional identity.

In other words, what is meant here is a person’s ability to understand the entire network of connections and relationships that characterize him as a representative and functionary of a wide variety of social communities, ranging from small groups (friends, family, educational and work teams, etc.) and ending with such large social groups as class, nation and people.

Just as multifaceted is that aspect of a person’s self-awareness that is associated with his ability to rise above his position only as an object and product of biosocial relations. This implies a person’s awareness of not only his purely social, but also biosocial needs and drives, including those associated with his relationship to the natural environment, but also refers to the individual’s ability to realize his individuality, that is, everything that what characterizes the uniqueness of a given person: his biosocial data, life experience and life path. An important element in the structure of a person’s self-awareness is self-esteem

a person, that is, his assessment of his capabilities and abilities, correlated in a certain way with his real position and the totality of his duties, functions and roles.

Thus, in its structure, a person’s self-awareness is represented by: I) generic self-awareness, or the fact of a person’s awareness of his belonging to the human race; 2) socially specific self-awareness, or the fact of a person’s awareness of his belonging to a certain set of social groups of which he is a representative (this corresponds to national, political, professional, legal self-awareness); 3) individual self-awareness, or the fact of an individual’s awareness of his individually unique characteristics, character traits and specific life interests. Models of the dynamic structure of personality.

In accordance with this, it is necessary to distinguish between two main aspects of the dynamic structure of personality: internal, introspective, and external, behavioral.

In relation to a person’s external behavior, distinguished into verbal and nonverbal, there is reason to consider as equivalents a verbal stereotype and a pattern of nonverbal behavior, respectively, which together form stereotypes of an individual’s social behavior.

The latter characterize a pattern of behavior or such a set of its elements that are relatively stable in a given situation, being the most acceptable and familiar form and norm for the individual of his situational activity.

1 option

1. Which approach to the interpretation of personality is redundant on the list?

a) anthropological b) sociological

c) personalistic d) scientific

2 . Which approach interprets personality as a bearer of universal human properties?

a) anthropological b) sociological c) personalistic d) scientific

3. The result of the conflict can be:

a) complete or partial subordination of another; b) compromise; c) interruption of conflict actions; d) integration; e) all answers are correct; e) all answers are incorrect.

4. The unique properties and originality of the relationships between them are:

a) individual b) individuality c) personality

5. Rate the following statements:

A. From the point of view of the Russian psychologist L. S. Vygodsky, the psychological and biological age of a person completely coincide.

B. The scale of time, including events that happened before a person’s life and will happen after his death, is called historical time.

1) only A is true 2) only B is true 3) both statements are true 4) both are false

6. The highest form of personality orientation is called:

a) aspirations b) beliefs c) desires d) attractions

7. Semyon is interested in history. He has many friends, among whom he is an informal leader. These qualities characterize Semyon as:

a) citizen, b) personality, c) individual, d) specialist

8. Young people as a social group are distinguished by:

a) commonality of life, b) unity of political views, c) lack of differentiation, d) similar behavioral traits

9. The family, unlike other small social groups, is characterized by:

a) real contacts between members, b) family relationships, c) stable ties, d) common traditions

10. A social group, the position and behavior of whose members are regulated by normative documents, is called:

a) small, b) large, c) formal, d) referential

IN 1. Correlate the type of interlocutor and the definition.

A. He does not immediately join the conversation; he needs time to first think about it and draw up a plan for his actions.

B. They easily switch to communication from any other activities, they are contactable, although they are easily distracted.

B. He is usually an ideal listener, speaks thoughtfully, tries to choose the most accurate words, and does not like to be interrupted.

G. Dozens of versions come to his mind, which, however, are easily replaced by others.

D. Not inclined to external communication. He often feels that he will not be understood.

1) introvert 2) rigid 3) mobile

AT 2. Match the concept and definition.

A) a stable, and often simplified, image of a phenomenon or person, emerging in conditions of a lack of information

B) this is comprehension of the emotional state of another person, so to speak, “feeling”

C) people’s perception, understanding and evaluation of social objects

1) empathy 2) perception 3) stereotype

AT 3 . Establish a correspondence between the types of social groups and their examples:

Examples of social groups Types of social groups

A) poetry club; 1. Formal

B) sports team “Spartak”; 2. Informal

B) school class;

D) employees of the institute department;

D) organization of fans of the Zenit football club;

AT 4.

A. Needs, B. Psyche, C. Personality, D. Culture, D. Communication, E. Family, G. Contacts, H. Group, I. Humanism.

In recent decades, psychologists have made a number of remarkable discoveries. One of them is about the importance of communication style with a child for his development (1). It has now become an indisputable truth that (2) is also necessary for the child. Like food. A baby who receives adequate nutrition and good medical care, but is deprived of constant (3) contact with an adult, develops poorly not only mentally, but also physically: he does not grow, loses weight, and loses interest in life.

If we continue the comparison with food, we can say that communication can be not only healthy, but also harmful. Bad food poisons the body; improper communication “poisons” (4) the child, jeopardizes his emotional well-being, and subsequently, of course, his fate.

The main features of a favorable communication style in the family were determined as a result of the enormous work of humanistic psychologists, theorists and practitioners. (5) in education is based, first of all, on understanding the child, his needs and (6), on knowledge of the patterns of his growth and development of his personality.

R. Baron

Testing on the topic: Personality, interpersonal relationships.

Option 2

1. A person becomes an individual:

a) after birth; b) after receiving education; c) having reached a certain age; d) having taken a leadership position

2. Human socialization begins:

A) in childhood; b) after receiving education; c) as a result of starting work; d) after reaching adulthood

3. Are the following statements about the origin of man true?

A) Man is a product of biological development; B) Man is a product of culture.

A) only A is true; b) only B is true; c) both judgments are correct; d) both judgments are incorrect

4. Communication proceeds:

A) in the microenvironment; b) in the macroenvironment; c) in a small group; d) among friends; e) all answers are correct; e) all answers are incorrect.

5. The interactive side of communication is:

A) exchange of information between communicating people; b) interpersonal interaction; c) perception, evaluation and understanding of each other by people.

6. A person who undoubtedly changes his behavior in accordance with group influence is called:

A) a conformist; b) nonconformist; c) a collectivist; d) a self-determining personality.

7 . A social norm is:

A) rule of conduct; b) standard of behavior; c) regulator of behavior; d) customs and traditions; d) all answers are correct.

8. The device is called:

A) a solution that satisfies the interests of all parties; b) mutual concessions; c) the desire to get out of a conflict situation without resolving it; d) smoothing out contradictions at the expense of one’s interests; d) all answers are correct.

9. A mediator is:

a) intermediary; b) psychologist-consultant; c) leader; d) clinical specialist; e) all answers are correct; e) all answers are incorrect.

10. Correlate the name of the scientist and his approach to the interpretation of personality.

A) anthropological b) sociological c) personalistic

1) L. Feuerbach 2) K. Jaspers 3) E. Durkheim

IN 1. For each definition given under points A, B, C, select the corresponding concept from points 1, 2, 3.

A. A person who actively masters and purposefully transforms nature, society and man himself;

B. An individual representative of the entire human race;

B. The unique identity of a person, a set of his unique properties;

1. Individual; 2. Individuality; 3. Personality.

AT 2. Find the characteristics of a patriarchal (traditional) family in the list below:

A) cohabitation of several generations; b) decision-making by all family members; c) economic independence of women; d) organization of everyday life as the main economic function; e) strict division of male and female responsibilities; f) joint production activities

AT 3. Establish a correspondence between family functions and their manifestations:

Manifestation of family functions Family functions

A) Distribution of family responsibilities; 1. Recreational

B) Joint leisure activities; 2. Economic

C) Family budget planning; 3. Educational

D) Transfer of traditions and values;

D) Removal of psychological stress;

AT 4. Read the text below, which contains a number of missing words. Select from the list below the words that need to be inserted in place of the spaces. Remember that there are more words in the list than you will need to fill in the blanks.

A. Children, B. Marriage, C. Socialization, D. Team, D. Responsibilities, E. Institute, G. Relationships, H. Group, I. Love, K. Respect.

A family is a small (2) based on (1) and (or) consanguinity, the members of which are united by living together and running a household, an emotional connection, mutual (3) in relation to each other. Also called family is social (4), i.e. a stable form of relationships between people, within which the main part of people’s daily lives is carried out (sexual relations, childbirth and primary (5) children, a significant part of household care, educational and medical care, especially in relation to (6) and older people.

Read the text and complete tasks C1-C4

Keys

Option 1

A. 1- g; 2-a; 3-d; 4-b; 5-2; 6-b; 7-b; 8-g; 9-b; 10-in;

B. B1: A2; B3; AT 2; D1; G3. B2: A3; B1; AT 2. B3: 21112. B4: VJBIA

Read the text and complete tasks C1-C4

In social psychology, a group is understood as two or more individuals who have common goals and stable relationships, and are also to some extent interdependent on each other and perceive themselves as part of this group... At one end of the scale there are groups consisting of people who work together for many years. It is obvious that they satisfy all the conditions of the definition. At the other end are people who have only short-term relationships with each other...

People join social groups for various reasons. First of all, groups help to satisfy important psychological or social problems, such as the need for attention and love, and a sense of belonging. These are subtle but very important needs: imagine living in complete social isolation! You wouldn't mind it at first, but you would end up feeling terribly lonely.

Groups help us achieve goals that we could not achieve alone. By collaborating with others, we are able to accomplish tasks that one person could not accomplish... Belonging to a group often provides us with knowledge and information that would otherwise be unavailable to us...

Finally, group membership contributes to the formation of a positive social identity, which becomes part of the self- concept." And the greater the number of prestigious groups with limited access to which a person was able to join, the more his "I-concept" is strengthened.

R. Baron

C1. Name the characteristics of a social group indicated in the text.

NW. Analyze such a group as passengers on the same flight from the point of view of the presence or absence of the main characteristics of a social group. Be specific about one of your conclusions.

Answers: C1

Signs:

Having a common goal;

Having a stable relationship;

The interdependence of people on each other;

People's awareness of belonging to the same group.

Answers: C2

Reasons for organizing people into groups:

Help satisfy important psychological or social problems, such as the need for attention and love, a sense of belonging;

Help in achieving a number of goals;

Provide information.

Answers: C3

1) This group is characterized by a common goal - to reach its destination safely.

2) There may be interdependence. For example, if someone stands in the aisle, others will not be able to pass.

3) Interaction may occur. It is not sustainable: after the flight is completed, it stops.

4) As a rule, passengers do not perceive themselves as part of a single group.

Answers: C4

“I-concept” is the totality of a person’s ideas about himself. By entering a prestigious group, a person transfers its importance to himself. As a result, joining a prestigious group increases a person’s self-esteem

Option 2

A. 1-a; 2-a; 3-in; 4-d; 5 B; 6-a; 7-d; 8-d; 9-a; 10-A1; B3; AT 2.

B. B1: A3; B1; AT 2 ; B2: a); d); e). B3: 1B, D; 2A, B; 3G. Q4: BZDEVA.

Read the text and complete tasks C1-C4

Family structures are falling apart all over the world. Divorce rates are rising in both the developed and underdeveloped world, as is the number of female-headed households.

Family values ​​are threatened not by government programs that interfere with the formation of families (although there are such programs), or by media programs that denigrate the family (although there are such programs); they are threatened by the economic system itself. This system simply does not allow families to exist in the old way, with the father providing most of the earnings and the mother doing most of the work of raising the children. The middle class family with one breadwinner is no more.

Social relations are not determined by economics: there may be many possibilities at the same time, but whatever these relations are, they must be compatible with economic reality. Traditional family relationships are not like that. As a consequence, the family as an institution is in the process of change and is under pressure. The point here is not about “character formation,” but about stubborn economic egoism or, more precisely, an unwillingness to subordinate one’s own interests to the interests of the family. Economic reality has forced us to reconsider the basic issues of family organization.

C2. Interaction, what areas of society does the author reveal using the example of a family? What, in the author's opinion, is the nature of this interaction?

C3. Why is the traditional patriarchal family becoming a thing of the past? Based on the source text and using social science knowledge, indicate three reasons.

C4. Which type of family is more consistent with the realities of post-industrial society? Drawing on knowledge from the social science course, indicate two of its characteristics.

Answer

	Points
The answer indicates the following manifestations of a crisis in family relationships: Rising number of divorces; Increase in the number of single-parent families.
Two traits correctly specified
One feature correct
Wrong answer
Maximum score

C2. The interaction of which spheres of society’s life does the author reveal using the example of a family? What, in the author's opinion, is the nature of this interaction?

(other wording of the answer is allowed that does not distort its meaning)	Points
The answer names the spheres of society: Social relations; Economy. The nature of their connection is shown: social relations are not determined by the economy, but must be compatible with it.
The spheres of society are correctly named, the nature of their interaction is shown
The spheres of society are correctly named
Wrong answer
Maximum score

C3. Why is the traditional patriarchal family becoming a thing of the past? Based on the source text and using social science knowledge, indicate three reasons.

(other wording of the answer is allowed that does not distort its meaning)	Points
The following reasons may be given in the answer: The current economic system in many cases makes the earnings of one father insufficient to maintain the standard of living of a family; The values ​​of personal achievements are strengthened to the detriment of family solidarity; Women strive to expand the range of their social roles, to go beyond the roles of mother, wife, and housewife.
Three reasons are correct
Two reasons are correct
One reason given correctly
Wrong answer
Maximum score

C4. Which type of family is more consistent with the realities of post-industrial society? Drawing on knowledge from the social science course, indicate two of its characteristics.

(other wording of the answer is allowed that does not distort its meaning)	Points
The answer names the type of family: partnership (democratic). The following signs can be named: Joint decision-making that affects the interests of family members; More equal distribution of family responsibilities.
The type of family is correctly named, its two characteristics are indicated
The type of family is correctly named, one of its characteristics is indicated
Correctly named family type
Wrong answer
Maximum score

Personality is a person taken in the system of his psychological characteristics that are socially conditioned, manifest themselves in social connections by nature and relationships are stable, determine the moral actions of a person that are of significant importance for himself and those around him.

Mental life has a certain structure. In psychological science we can find the identification and description three components of personality:

1. Personality orientation. It includes various properties, a system of interacting needs and interests that make up the worldview of the individual, i.e., in other words, the orientation of the individual is the system of its relations to the world around it, these are the motives of the individual’s behavior.

2. Personal capabilities. This component includes that system of abilities and inclinations that ensures success in some type of activity.

3. Steel human behavior. First of all, this includes temperament and character. In the character system, one can distinguish, firstly, moral qualities and properties (attitude towards people, responsibility), and secondly, volitional qualities.

Structure in the general understanding is a set of stable connections between many components of an object, ensuring its integrity and identity to itself. When the structure of personality is considered, many questions arise: what is included in the components of personality, what connections between the selected components are system-forming. This leads to the fact that almost every specialist who studies personality creates his own personality structure. In Russian psychology, there are a number of attempts to present the structure of personality (A.G. Kovalev, V.S. Merlin, K.K. Platonov, V.A. Krutetsky, A.I. Shcherbakov).

Among the large number of personality structures proposed by domestic psychologists, the most generally accepted is structure of K. K. Platonov. He identified four main components in the personality structure: orientation, experience, mental processes and biopsychic properties. Direction, according to K.K. Platonov, is directly related to the beliefs, worldview, ideals, inclinations, interests, desires and inclinations of the individual, and all these components are socially conditioned.

Personal experience is directly manifested in habits, abilities, skills, and knowledge. These structural components of personality are also predominantly socially determined, although the role of biological factors, especially innate inclinations, is more significant here than in relation to direction.

Mental processes, such as sensations, perceptions, memory, thinking, imagination, as well as will and feelings, despite significant individual characteristics, represent system-forming components of personality. In human personality, these processes, unlike animals, are predominantly social in nature.

Biopsychic properties are manifested in temperament, gender and age characteristics, and in congenital pathological abnormalities in the development of the body. These components of personality are determined by heredity and have practically no social origin.

Separately, this structure presents two more system factors - abilities and character. They seem to be superimposed on all other components, since they are directly related to orientation, experience, mental processes, and biopsychic properties.

A.V.Petrovsky and V.A.Petrovsky understood the structure of personality when it is considered as a “supersensible” systemic quality of an individual. Considering personality in the system of subjective relations, they identify three types of attribution (attribution, endowment) of the individual’s personal existence (or three aspects of the interpretation of personality).

The first aspect to consider is intra-individual personal attribution: personality is interpreted as a property inherent in the subject himself;

the personality finds itself immersed in the internal space of the individual’s existence.

Second aspect - interindividual personal attribution as a way of understanding personality, when the sphere of its definition and existence becomes the “space of interindividual connections.”

The third aspect of consideration is meta-individual personal attribution. Here attention is drawn to the impact that, voluntarily or unwittingly, an individual has with his activities (individual and joint) on other people. Personality is perceived from a new angle: its most important characteristics, which were tried to be seen as an individual, are proposed to be looked for not only in himself, but also in other people. In this case, personality acts as the ideal representation of the individual in other people, his otherness in them. The essence of this ideal representation is in technical, effective changes in the intellectual and affective-need sphere of another person, which are produced by the activity of the subject or his participation in joint activities. The “otherness” of an individual in other people is not a static imprint. We are talking about an active process, a kind of continuation of oneself in another, as a result of which the personality finds a second life in other people. Continuing in other people, with the death of the individual the personality does not completely die. The individual, as the bearer of personality, dies, but, personalized in other people, continues to live. In the words “he lives in us even after death” there is neither mysticism nor metaphor, this is a statement of the fact of the ideal representation of the individual after his material disappearance. Thus, a person can be characterized only in the unity of all three proposed aspects of consideration.