X-rays refer to a special kind of electromagnetic oscillation that is created in the tube of an X-ray machine when the electrons suddenly stop. X-ray is a familiar procedure for many, but some want to know more about it. What is an x-ray? How is an x-ray done?
X-ray properties
In medical practice, the following properties of x-rays have been used:
- Great penetrating power. X-rays successfully pass through various tissues of the human body.
- X-ray causes light reflection of individual chemical elements. This property underlies fluoroscopy.
- The photochemical effect of ionizing rays allows you to create informative, from a diagnostic point of view, images.
- X-ray radiation has an ionizing effect.
During an x-ray scan, various organs, tissues, and structures act as targets for x-rays. During an insignificant radioactive load, metabolism can be disturbed, and with prolonged exposure to radiation, acute or chronic radiation sickness can occur.
X-ray machine
X-ray machines are devices that are used not only for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes in medicine, but also in various industries (defectoscopes), as well as in other areas of human life.
The device of the x-ray machine:
- emitter tubes (lamp) - one or more pieces;
- a power supply device that supplies the device with electricity and regulates the radiation parameters;
- tripods that make it easier to control the device;
- converters of X-ray radiation into a visible image.
X-ray machines are divided into several groups depending on how they are arranged and where they are used:
- stationary - they are, as a rule, equipped with rooms in radiology departments and clinics;
- mobile - designed for use in the departments of surgery and traumatology, in intensive care units and outpatients;
- portable, dental (used by dentists).
When passing through the human body, X-rays are projected onto the film. However, the angle of reflection of the waves can be different and this affects the image quality. The bones are best seen in the pictures - they are bright white in color. This is due to the fact that calcium absorbs X-rays the most.
Types of diagnostics
In medical practice, X-rays have found application in such diagnostic methods:
- Fluoroscopy is a research method in which in the past the examined organs were projected onto a screen coated with a fluorescent compound. In the process, it was possible to examine the organ from different angles in dynamics. And thanks to modern digital processing, they immediately receive the finished video image on the monitor or display it on paper.
- Radiography is the main type of research. The patient is given a film with a fixed image of the examined organ or part of the body.
- Radiography and fluoroscopy with contrast. This type of diagnostics is indispensable in the study of hollow organs and soft tissues.
- Fluorography is an examination with small-format x-rays that allow it to be used massively during preventive examinations of the lungs.
- Computed tomography (CT) is a diagnostic method that allows you to study the human body in detail through a combination of X-rays and digital processing. There is a computer reconstruction of layer-by-layer X-ray images. Of all the methods of radiation diagnostics, this one is the most informative.
X-rays are used not only for diagnosis, but also for therapy. Radiation therapy is widely used in the treatment of cancer patients.
In the case of emergency care, the patient is initially given a survey radiograph.
There are such types of X-ray examination:
- spine and peripheral parts of the skeleton;
- chest;
- abdominal cavity;
- detailed image of all teeth with jaws, adjacent sections of the facial skeleton;
- checking the patency of the fallopian tubes using x-rays;
- x-ray examination of the breast with a low proportion of radiation;
- radiopaque examination of the stomach and duodenum;
- diagnosis of the gallbladder and ducts using contrast;
- examination of the colon with retrograde injection of a radiopaque preparation into it.
An abdominal x-ray is divided into a plain x-ray and a procedure performed with contrast. To determine the pathologies in the lung, fluoroscopy has found wide application. X-ray examination of the spine, joints and other parts of the skeleton is a very popular diagnostic method.
Neurologists, traumatologists and orthopedists cannot make an accurate diagnosis for their patients without using this type of examination. It shows X-ray hernia of the spine, scoliosis, various microtraumas, disorders of the bone and ligamentous apparatus (pathology of a healthy foot), fractures (of the wrist joint) and much more.
Preparation
Most of the diagnostic manipulations associated with the use of x-rays do not require special training, but there are exceptions. If an examination of the stomach, intestines or lumbosacral spine is planned, then 2-3 days before the X-ray, you need to follow a special diet that reduces flatulence and fermentation processes.
When examining the gastrointestinal tract, it is required on the eve of the diagnosis and directly on the day of the examination to make cleansing enemas in the classical way using Esmarch's mug or cleanse the intestines with the help of pharmacy laxatives (oral preparations or microclysters).
When examining the abdominal organs, at least 3 hours before the procedure, you can not eat, drink, smoke. Before you go for a mammogram, you need to visit a gynecologist. An x-ray examination of the breast should be carried out at the beginning of the menstrual cycle after the end of menstruation. If a woman who plans a breast examination has implants, then this must be reported to the radiologist.
Holding
Entering the X-ray room, he must remove items of clothing or jewelry that contain metal, and also leave a mobile phone outside the room. As a rule, the patient is asked to undress to the waist if the chest or peritoneum is being examined. If it is necessary to perform an x-ray of the extremities, the patient can remain in clothing. All parts of the body that are not subject to diagnosis should be covered with a protective lead apron.
Pictures can be taken in various positions. But most often the patient is standing or lying down. If you need a series of images from different angles, then the radiologist gives the patient commands to change the position of the body. If an x-ray of the stomach is performed, then the patient will need to take the Trendelenburg position.
This is a special posture in which the pelvic organs are slightly higher than the head. As a result of manipulations, negatives are obtained, which show light areas of denser structures and dark areas, indicating the presence of soft tissues. Decoding and analysis of each area of the body is performed according to certain rules.
X-rays are often taken in children to detect hip dysplasia.
Frequency
The maximum allowable effective dose of radiation is 15 mSv per year. As a rule, only people who need regular X-ray control (after severe injuries) receive such a dose of radiation. If during the year the patient does only fluorography, mammography and X-rays at the dentist, then he can be completely calm, since his radiation exposure will not exceed 1.5 mSv.
Acute radiation sickness can occur only if a person receives a single exposure to a dose of 1000 mSv. But if this is not a liquidator at a nuclear power plant, then in order to receive such a radiation exposure, the patient must do 25,000 x-rays and a thousand x-rays of the spine in one day. And this is nonsense.
The same radiation doses that a person receives during standard examinations, even if they are increased, are not able to have a noticeable negative effect on the body. Therefore, x-rays can be done as often as required by medical indications. However, this principle does not apply to pregnant women.
X-rays are contraindicated for them at any time, especially in the first trimester, when all organs and systems in the fetus are laid. If circumstances force a woman to take an x-ray while carrying a child (serious injuries during an accident), then they try to use the maximum protection measures for the abdomen and pelvic organs. During breastfeeding, women are allowed to do both x-rays and fluorography.
At the same time, according to many experts, she does not even need to express milk. Fluorography for small children is not done. This procedure is valid from the age of 15. As for X-ray diagnostics in pediatrics, they resort to it, but take into account that children have increased radiosensitivity to ionizing radiation (on average 2-3 times higher than adults), which creates a high risk of both somatic and genetic radiation effects.
Contraindications
Fluoroscopy and radiography of organs and structures of the human body has not only many indications, but also a number of contraindications:
- active tuberculosis;
- endocrine pathologies of the thyroid gland;
- the general serious condition of the patient;
- bearing a child at any time;
- for radiography with the use of contrast - lactation;
- serious disorders in the work of the heart and kidneys;
- internal bleeding;
- individual intolerance to contrast agents.
In our time, you can take an x-ray in many medical centers. If radiographic or fluoroscopic examination is done on digital complexes, then the patient can count on a lower dose of radiation. But even a digital x-ray can be considered safe only if the permissible frequency of the procedure is not exceeded.
X-ray studies are based on the registration of radiation by an X-ray machine, which, passing through the organs of the human body, transmits an image to the screen. After that, on the basis of the obtained image, experienced specialists draw conclusions about the state of health of the examined organs of the patient.
The most important thing to understand is that any indications and contraindications for radiography are privately determined only by the attending physician.
An x-ray examination may be prescribed if you suspect the occurrence of diseases in:
- chest organs;
- skeletal system and joints;
- genitourinary system;
- cardiovascular system;
- cerebral cortex.
And also for:
- checking the results of treatment in patients of all groups;
- confirmation of the diagnosis made by the doctor.
Contraindications for x-ray
When conducting a comprehensive study using X-ray analysis, a person receives a small dose of radioactive radiation. This can not significantly affect a healthy body. But in some special cases, radiography is really not recommended.
It is undesirable or dangerous to examine a patient with an x-ray if:
- pregnancy in the early stages of fetal development;
- severe damage to internal organs;
- severe venous or arterial bleeding;
- diabetes mellitus in the last stages of the development of the disease;
- serious violations in the work of the excretory systems of the body;
- pulmonary tuberculosis in the active phase;
- pathologies in the endocrine system.
Advantages of X-ray diagnostics
Radiography has a number of significant advantages, namely:
- helps to establish a diagnosis in almost all types of diseases;
- has a wide availability and does not require a special purpose;
- is painless for the patient;
- is easy to carry out;
- non-invasive, therefore no risk of infection;
- relatively inexpensive compared to other examination methods.
Disadvantages of X-ray
Like any type of medical examination, radiography has its drawbacks, including:
- the negative impact of x-rays on the state of the body;
- the risk of an allergy to the X-ray contrast agents used in the study;
- inability to frequently apply the examination procedure;
- the information content of this method is lower than, for example, MRI studies;
- it is not always possible to correctly decipher the image obtained on the x-ray.
Types of radiography
Radiography is used for a comprehensive check of all organs and tissues of the human body, it is divided into several types that have certain differences:
- panoramic radiography;
- targeted radiography;
- radiography according to Vogt;
- microfocus radiography;
- contrast radiography;
- intraoral radiography;
- radiography of soft tissues;
- fluorography;
- digital radiography;
- contrast — radiography;
- radiography with functional tests.
You can learn how to do an x-ray in this video. Filmed by the channel: "It's Interesting."
Panoramic radiography
Panoramic or survey radiography is successfully used in dentistry. This procedure involves photographing the maxillofacial region using a special device called an orthopontomograph, which is a type of x-ray. The result is a clear image that allows you to analyze the condition of the upper and lower jaws, as well as the soft tissues adjacent to them. Guided by the picture taken, the dentist can perform complex operations to install dental implants.
It also helps to perform a number of other highly technical procedures:
- offer the best way to treat gum disease;
- develop a technique for eliminating defects in the development of the jaw apparatus and much more.
Sighting
The difference between general and targeted radiography in a narrow focus. It allows you to get an image of only a specific area or organ. But the detail of such a picture will be several times higher than a conventional x-ray examination.
The advantage of the targeted radiograph is that it shows the state of the organ or area in dynamics, at different time intervals. X-rays passing through the tissue or area of inflammation, increase its image. Therefore, in the picture, the organs are larger than their natural size.
The size of the organ or structure in the picture will be larger. The object of study is located closer to the X-ray tube, but at a greater distance from the film. This method is used to obtain an image in primary magnification. An objective radiograph is ideal for examining the thoracic region.
X-ray according to Vogt
Vogt X-ray is a non-skeletal method of X-raying the eye. It is used when microscopic fragments enter the eye that cannot be tracked using a conventional x-ray. The image shows a clearly defined area of the eye (anterior compartment) in such a way that the bony walls of the orbit do not obscure the damaged part.
For research according to Vogt in the laboratory, two films must be prepared. Their size should be two by four, and the edges must be rounded. Before use, each film must be carefully wrapped in wax paper to prevent moisture from entering its surface during the procedure.
Films are needed to focus x-rays. Thus, any, the smallest foreign object will be highlighted and detected by shading in two completely identical places in the picture.
To perform a radiographic procedure according to the Vogt method, two images must be taken one after the other - lateral and axial. To avoid injury to the fundus, the images should be taken with soft x-rays.
Microfocus radiography
Microfocus radiography is a complex definition. The study includes various methods for obtaining images of objects on x-rays, the focal spot diameter of which is not more than one tenth of a millimeter. Microfocus radiography has a number of features and advantages that distinguish it from other research methods.
Microfocus radiography:
- allows you to get a multiple increase in objects in images with increased sharpness;
- based on the size of the focal spot and other features when shooting, it makes it possible to multiply the magnification without losing the quality of the photo;
- The information content of an x-ray image is much higher than in traditional radiography, with lower doses of radiation exposure.
Microfocus radiography is an innovative research method used in cases where conventional radiography is not able to determine the area of damage to an organ or structure.
Contrast radiography
Contrast radiography is a set of x-ray studies. Their characteristic feature is the principle of using radiopaque substances in order to increase the diagnostic accuracy of the resulting image.
The method of contrasting is used to examine the cavities inside the organs, to assess their structural features, functionality and localization. Special contrast solutions are injected into the area under study, so that due to the difference
One of these methods is irrigoscopy. During it, radiologists examine the structure of the walls of organs in the course of getting rid of contrast agents.
Contrast radiography is often used in research:
- genitourinary system;
- with fistulography;
- to determine the characteristic features of blood flow.
Intraoral radiography
With the help of an examination using the method of contact intraoral (intraoral) radiography, all types of diseases of the upper and lower jaw and periodontal tissue can be diagnosed. An intraoral x-ray helps to detect the development of dental pathologies at an early stage, which cannot be achieved during a routine examination.
The procedure has several advantages:
- high efficiency;
- rapidity;
- painlessness;
- wide availability.
The procedure for intraoral radiography is not associated with particular difficulties. The patient is seated in a comfortable chair, then asked to freeze for a few seconds, clenching the jaws of the film for the picture. During the procedure, you need to hold your breath for a while. A picture is taken within three to four seconds.
X-ray of soft tissues
Examination of soft tissues using radiography is carried out to obtain operational information about:
- muscle condition;
- articular and periarticular bags;
- tendons;
- ligaments;
- connective tissues;
- skin;
- subcutaneous adipose tissue.
With the help of a detailed picture, the radiologist can examine the structure, density and size of the connective tissues. During the study, X-ray beams penetrate soft tissues, and the machine displays the scanned image on the screen.
During an examination using this method, the doctor asks the person to tilt their head in different directions, up and down. In this case, the bones are fixed in a certain position, which is subsequently displayed on the pictures. This is called radiography with functional tests.
For most of today's children and adolescents suffering from problems associated with dysfunction of the musculoskeletal system, this type of x-ray examination is especially important.
In order to reveal hidden pathologies in time, children should have x-rays with functional tests of the cervical spine. This examination is suitable for all children, regardless of age. In infants, the examination allows you to identify injuries and abnormalities received immediately after childbirth. Children's radiography can report problems with the development of the skeleton (scoliosis, lordosis, kyphosis) in time.
Photo gallery
Intraoral Contrast Microfocus X-ray of soft tissues Panoramic X-ray according to Vogt
Preparation for radiography
To properly prepare for the x-ray procedure, you must:
- Get a referral for x-rays from your doctor.
- To get a clear and unblurred image, you need to hold your breath for a few seconds before starting the x-ray.
- Be sure to get rid of all metal objects before starting the examination.
- If we are talking about the study of the gastrointestinal tract, you need to minimize the amount of food and drink consumed a few hours before the start of the study.
- In some special cases, the patient may require a cleansing enema prior to X-ray examinations.
Research technique
To comply with the rules for x-ray examination, it is necessary:
- The healthcare worker must leave the room before the procedure begins. If his presence is mandatory, he must wear a lead apron for radiation safety purposes.
- The patient needs to take the correct position at the X-ray machine in accordance with the instructions received from the radiologist. Often he needs to stand, but sometimes the patient is asked to sit or lie down on a special couch.
- A person during the examination is forbidden to move until the procedure is completed.
- Based on the purpose of a particular examination, the radiologist may need to take pictures in several projections. Most often, these are direct and lateral projections, respectively.
- Before the patient leaves the office, the health worker should check the quality of the image and, if necessary, repeat the procedure.
The number of images during X-ray control is determined by the doctor personally.
How are X-ray results interpreted?
When deciphering an x-ray, the doctor pays attention to factors such as:
- form;
- displacement;
- intensity;
- size;
- contours, etc.
Since the image is made in the mode of X-rays passing through the patient's body, the dimensions on the X-ray photo do not correspond to the anatomical parameters of the patient. The specialist studies the shadow picture of the organs. Draws attention to the roots of the lungs and pulmonary pattern. On the basis of the image, the radiologist prepares a description, which is transferred to the attending physician.
Radiography is a non-invasive diagnostic method that allows you to obtain an image of individual parts of the human body on x-ray film or digital media using ionizing radiation. X-ray allows you to study the anatomical and structural features of organs and systems, helping in the diagnosis of many internal pathologies that cannot be seen during a routine examination.
Taking x-rays
Description of the method
The radiographic research method is based on the use of x-rays. X-rays emitted by the device's sensor have a high penetrating power. Passing through the tissues of the human body, the rays ionize the cells and linger in them in various volumes, as a result of which a black-and-white image of the anatomical region under study appears on the x-ray film. Bone tissue is more radiopaque, so it looks lighter in the pictures, darker areas are soft tissues that do not absorb x-rays well.
The discovery of X-ray radiation made a huge breakthrough in the diagnosis of many diseases that until that time could only be detected at a late stage, when treatment became difficult or even impossible.
To date, most polyclinics and large hospitals are equipped with X-ray machines, with the help of which you can quickly clarify the diagnosis and draw up a treatment plan. In addition, X-rays are also used for preventive examinations, helping to diagnose serious pathologies in the early stages. The most common type of preventive examination is fluorography, the purpose of which is the early diagnosis of pulmonary tuberculosis.
There are several methods of X-ray examination, the difference between which lies in the method of fixing the image:
- Classical radiography - the image is obtained by direct exposure of x-rays to the film.
- Fluorography - the image is displayed on the monitor screen, from where it is subsequently printed on a small format film.
- Digital x-ray - a black and white image is transferred to a digital medium.
- Electroroentgenography - the image is transferred to special plates, from where it is then transferred to paper.
- Teleradiography - with the help of a special television system, the image is displayed on the TV screen.
- X-ray - the image is displayed on a fluorescent screen.
The method of digital radiography more accurately reflects the picture of the area under study, which greatly facilitates the diagnosis and selection of a treatment regimen for the identified pathology.
In addition to differences in the method of image fixation, radiography is divided into types depending on the object of study:
- X-ray of the spinal column and peripheral parts of the skeleton (limbs).
- Chest x-ray.
- X-ray of teeth (intraoral, extraoral, orthopantomography).
- Mammary gland - mammography.
- Colon - irrigoscopy.
- Stomach and duodenum - gastroduodenography.
- Bile ducts and gallbladder - cholegraphy and cholecystography.
- Uterus - metrosalpingography.
Hysterosalpingogram
Indications and contraindications for examination
Radiography, like fluoroscopy and other X-ray examination methods, is carried out only if there are indications, and there are many of them - such a study is prescribed to patients to visualize internal organs and systems in order to identify pathological abnormalities in their structure. Radiography is indicated in the following cases:
- Diagnosis of diseases of the skeleton and internal organs.
- Checking the success of the treatment and identifying undesirable consequences.
- Monitoring the position of installed catheters and tubes.
Before the start of the study, each patient is interviewed to clarify possible contraindications to radiography.
These include:
- active form of tuberculosis.
- Thyroid dysfunction.
- Severe general condition of the patient.
- Pregnancy period.
Pregnant X-rays are done only for health reasons.
- Breastfeeding if a contrast agent is needed.
- Heart and kidney failure (relative contraindication for contrasting).
- Bleeding.
- Allergy to iodine-containing substances in case of need for the use of contrast agents.
Advantages of radiography over other methods:
- The main advantage of X-ray examination is the availability of the method and the simplicity of its implementation. Most clinics are equipped with the necessary equipment, so there is usually no problem with the place where you can scan. The price of x-rays is usually low.
Radiography is available in almost any medical institution
- Before the study, there is no need to carry out complex preparation. The exception is radiography with contrast.
- Finished images are stored for a long time, so they can be shown to different specialists even after several years.
The main disadvantage of X-ray examination is the radiation load on the body, but subject to certain rules (scanning on modern devices and the use of personal protective equipment), undesirable consequences can be easily avoided.
Another disadvantage of the method is that the obtained images can only be viewed in one plane. In addition, some organs are almost not displayed on the pictures, so for their study it is necessary to inject a contrast agent. Old-style devices do not make it possible to obtain clear images, so it is often necessary to prescribe additional studies to clarify the diagnosis. To date, the most informative is scanning on devices with digital recorders.
The difference between radiography and fluoroscopy
Fluoroscopy is one of the main types of X-ray examination. The meaning of the technique is to obtain an image of the area under study on a fluorescent screen using x-rays in real time. Unlike radiography, the method does not allow obtaining graphic images of organs on film, however, it allows assessing not only the structural features of the organ, but also its displacement, filling, and stretching. Fluoroscopy often accompanies catheter placement and angioplasty. The main disadvantage of the method is a higher radiation exposure in comparison with radiography.
How is the examination carried out?
Woman lying on the x-ray machine table
The technique of radiography for different organs and systems is similar, differing only in the positioning of the patient and the injection site of the contrast agent. Immediately before entering the office, you should remove all metal objects from yourself, already in the office you need to put on a protective apron. Depending on the purpose of the study, the patient is placed on a couch in a certain position or seated on a chair. A film cassette is placed behind the area to be examined, after which the probe is directed. During the study, the laboratory assistant leaves the room, the patient must remain completely still to obtain clear images.
In some cases, the scan is performed in several projections - the specialist will tell the patient about the change in posture. When using a contrast agent, it is administered in the right way before the start of the scan. After the study is completed, the specialist checks the obtained images to assess their quality, if necessary, the scan is repeated.
Deciphering the results
In order to correctly "read" the picture, you need to have the appropriate qualifications, it is very difficult for an ignorant person to do this. The images obtained during the study are negatives, so the denser structures of the body appear as light areas, and the soft tissues appear as dark formations.
When deciphering each area of the body, doctors follow certain rules. For example, with a chest x-ray, specialists evaluate the relative position and structural features of organs - the lungs, heart, mediastinum, examine the ribs and collarbones for damage (fractures and cracks). All characteristics are evaluated according to the age of the patient.
Doctor examining an x-ray of the lungs
For the final diagnosis of one x-ray is often not enough - you should rely on the data of the survey, examination, other laboratory and instrumental methods of examination. Do not engage in self-diagnosis, the X-ray method is still quite complicated for people without a higher medical education, its purpose requires special indications.
X-ray examination I
It is used to study the structure and functions of organs in normal and pathological conditions. Allows you to diagnose, determine the localization and extent of the identified pathological changes, as well as their dynamics during the treatment process. The study is based on the fact that X-ray radiation passing through organs and tissues is absorbed by them to an unequal degree, which makes it possible to obtain their image on a special screen or radiographic film. The difference in the optical density of neighboring areas of the image on the radiograph (or the difference in the brightness of the fluorescent screen) determines the images. Many organs and tissues of the body, differing from each other in density and chemical composition, absorb differently, which causes the natural contrast of the resulting image. Thanks to this, R. and. bones and joints, lungs, heart and some other organs can be performed without special preparation. To study the gastrointestinal tract, liver, kidneys, bronchi, vessels, the natural contrast of which is insufficient, they resort to artificial contrasting: they introduce special harmless X-ray contrast agents that absorb much stronger (barium sulfate, organic iodine compounds) or weaker (gas) than investigated structure. For the purpose of artificial contrasting of organs and tissues, they are taken orally (for example, with R. and. of the stomach), injected into the bloodstream (for example, with urography), into the cavities or tissues surrounding (for example, with ligamentography), or directly into the cavity (lumen ) or the parenchyma of the organ (for example, with sinusography, bronchography, hepatography). At
fluoroscopy (X-ray) intense shadows on the screen correspond to dense organs and tissues, lighter shadows refer to less dense formations containing gas, i.e. image is positive ( rice. 1, a
). On radiographs, the ratio of darkening and clearing is reversed, i.e. image is negative ( rice. 1, b
). When describing images, one always proceeds from the ratio inherent in a positive image, i.e. light areas on x-rays are called blackouts, dark areas are enlightenments. The choice of the optimal method depends on the diagnostic task in each specific case. to R. and. are determined by the patient's condition and the specifics of a specific R. method and. (for example, contraindicated in acute inflammatory diseases of the respiratory tract). X-ray examination is carried out in X-ray rooms. When examining individuals
being in a serious condition (for example, shock or the damages demanding urgent interventions), R. and. carried out directly in the intensive care unit or in the operating room using ward or dressing X-ray units. According to indications, it is possible to examine patients in dressing rooms, emergency departments, hospital wards, etc. The study, depending on the direction of the X-ray beam relative to the plane of the body, is carried out mainly in direct, lateral and oblique projections. With direct projection ( rice. 2, a, b
) is directed sagittally, i.e. perpendicular to the frontal plane of the body. In the anterior direct (dorsoventral) projection, the radiation source is located behind the subject, and or the film is adjacent to the front surface of the body, in the posterior direct (ventrodorsal) projection, the location of the radiation source and receiver is reversed. With a lateral projection (left or right), the central beam passes perpendicular to the sagittal plane of the body, i.e. along its frontal plane ( rice. 2, c, d
). Oblique projections are characterized by the direction of the central beam at an angle to the frontal and sagittal planes ( rice. 2, e, f, g, h
). There are four oblique projections - right and left anterior and right and left posterior. In some cases at R. and. it is necessary to use additional projections obtained by rotating the patient around one axis (often longitudinal). Such a study is called multi-projection. If this is not enough, the patient is also turned around other axes (see Polypositional study). When examining a number of anatomical formations, for example, the orbit, the middle ear, special projections are used - axial (the central beam is directed along the axis of the organ), tangential (the central beam is directed tangentially to the surface of the organ), etc. X-ray examination usually begins with
fluoroscopy (fluoroscopy)
or
radiography (radiography). With the help of fluoroscopy, the motor function of some internal organs (heart, stomach, intestines, etc.) is examined, the displacement of pathological formations during palpation or a change in the position of the patient is determined, etc., which has a high resolution, makes it possible to more clearly and clearly display the structures of the body. Fluoroscopy and constitute a group of general radiological methods. They also underlie private and special radiological methods based on the use of special techniques and technical means, which are used to obtain additional information about the function and structure of the organ under study. Private methods include Teleroentgenography and Electroroentgenography,
Tomography,
Fluorography, etc. To register the movements of organs (for example, the heart, lungs, diaphragm), fluoroscopy is used using video magnetic recording of the image. Special methods (Bronchography,
cholegraphy,
urography,
Angiography, etc.) are designed to study a specific system, organ or part of it, usually after artificial contrasting. They are used according to strict indications only in cases where simpler methods do not provide the necessary diagnostic results. Sometimes preliminary preparation of the patient is necessary, which ensures the quality of R. and., reduces the discomfort associated with the study, and prevents the development of complications. So, before carrying out R. and. colon prescribe , cleansing ; in case of need of carrying out at R. and. punctures of the vessel or duct apply local anesthesia; before the introduction of some radiopaque substances, hyposensitizing drugs are prescribed; for a clearer identification during the study of the functional state of the organ, various drugs can be used (stimulating the peristalsis of the gastrointestinal tract, reducing sphincters, etc.). The analysis received at R. and. information consists of several successive stages: the allocation of x-ray symptoms, the interpretation of the x-ray picture, the comparison of x-ray data with the results of clinical and previous x-ray studies, the differential diagnosis and the formulation of the final conclusion. The complications connected with R.'s use and. are observed seldom. They mainly occur during artificial contrasting of cavities, organs and systems of the body and are manifested by allergic reactions, acute respiratory distress, collapse, reflex disorders of cardiac activity, embolism, damage to organs and tissues. The vast majority of complications develop during the course of the study or in the first 30 min after its completion. Complications in the form of radiation damage (Radiation damage)
with strict observance of all the rules of radiation protection (Ray protection) are not observed. They can arise only in case of gross violation of the rules for working with sources of ionizing radiation (operation of faulty equipment, violation of research methods, refusal to use personal protective equipment, etc.). Radiation protection for patients and personnel is achieved by proper planning of the X-ray room, limiting the irradiation field to the size of the area under study and shielding the area of the genital organs, using additional filtration of the primary radiation beam and personal protective equipment, etc. X-ray examination of children. The main method of R. and. children, especially newborns, is radiography. It is accompanied by a lower radiation exposure to the patient and at the same time allows obtaining sufficiently complete and objective information about the organ under study. In the study of older children, radiography is supplemented with fluoroscopy, while preference is given to X-ray television research, which allows to reduce radiation exposure. Most of the special studies in children are not possible. Appropriate devices and devices are used to fix young children during the study in the optimal position. Areas of the body that are not subject to examination are shielded with lead rubber or a protective screen. Mass X-ray examinations of children under the age of 12 are prohibited. Bibliography: Zedgenidze G.A. and Osipkova T.A. Urgent at children, L., 1980, bibliogr.; Kishkovsky A.N. and Tyutin L.A. Methodology and technique of electroroentgenography, M., 1982; Lindenbraten L.D. and Naumov L.B. Methods of X-ray examination of human organs and systems, Tashkent, 1976. X-ray image of the hand is normal: a positive image observed on fluoroscopy (dense tissues correspond to darker areas of the image) "\u003e Rice. 1a). X-ray image of the hand is normal: positive image observed on fluoroscopy (dense tissue corresponds to darker areas of the image). Rice. Fig. 2. Standard radiological projections: a - anterior straight line; b - back straight line; in - left lateral; g - right side; d - right anterior oblique; e - left anterior oblique; g - right rear oblique; h - left rear oblique; 1 - X-ray source; 2 - cross section of the body of the subject; 3 - spine; 4 - radiation receiver; Ф - frontal plane, the dotted line indicates the central beam of the radiation beam. in medicine - the study of morphological and functional features of human organs and systems, incl. for the purpose of diagnosing diseases, based on the receipt and analysis of x-ray images of the corresponding parts of the body. 1. Small medical encyclopedia. - M.: Medical Encyclopedia. 1991-96 2. First aid. - M.: Great Russian Encyclopedia. 1994 3. Encyclopedic dictionary of medical terms. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. - 1982-1984.
See what "X-ray examination" is in other dictionaries:
X-ray examination- 25. X-ray examination the use of X-ray radiation to examine a patient for the purpose of diagnosing and / or preventing diseases, consisting of one or more X-ray procedures. Source … Dictionary-reference book of terms of normative and technical documentation
x-ray examination
The study of x-ray. Radiology is a branch of radiology that studies the effects of X-ray radiation on the human body, the pathological conditions arising from this disease, their treatment and prevention, as well as methods ... ... Wikipedia
chest x-ray- rus chest radiography (c) eng chest radiography fra radiographie (f) thoracique deu Thoraxröntgen (n), Thoraxröntgenaufnahme (f) spa radiografía (f) torácica … Occupational safety and health. Translation into English, French, German, Spanish
The study of morphological and functional features of human organs and systems, including for the purpose of diagnosing diseases, based on the acquisition and analysis of X-ray images of the relevant parts of the body ... Big Medical Dictionary
See Tomography... Big Medical Dictionary
I Polypositional study (Greek poly many + Lat. positio setting, position) is a method of X-ray examination, in which, by changing the position of the patient's body, optimal projections of the organ under study are obtained. When changing position... Medical Encyclopedia
X-ray examination- rus x-ray examination (с), radiographic examination (с); x-ray examination (c) eng X ray examination, radiological examination fra examen (m) radiologique deu Röntgenuntersuchung (f) spa examen (m) con rayos X,… … Occupational safety and health. Translation into English, French, German, Spanish
- (a. radiography, roentgenography; n. Rontgenographie; f. radiographie aux rayons X; i. roentgenografia) - a method for studying minerals, rocks, ores and products of their technol. processing, based on the phenomenon of X-ray diffraction crystalline. Mountain Encyclopedia
