A person who creates sketches and originals of the external. A person who creates sketches and originals of external and internal decoration but is not an illustrator

§ 10 . VOCABULARY OF THE RUSSIAN LANGUAGE FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF ITS USE

The main part of the vocabulary of the Russian language consists of Common words that are not limited to their sphere of use. They are used in all styles, creating national identity and the originality of the language. This vocabulary is understandable to all Russian speakers: earth, sky, mother, father, brother, daughter, red, white, blue, long, I, you, he, she, talk, walk, write, breathe, look.

TO restricted words, applies dialect vocabulary, slang and argot, special.

Dialectal vocabulary – These are words whose use is geographically limited. It is owned mainly by villagers - representatives of Russian folk dialects: hush - blizzard, tues - a vessel made of birch bark, greenery - rye shoots, side - on the side.

Slang and argot vocabulary- these are words that are used by certain social groups of people due to their social status and the specifics of the environment. Terms jargon, argot, slang sometimes used as complete synonyms, but more often they are distinguished.

Jargon ( French jargon) – this is a type of speech of a group of people united by profession(jargon of pilots, sailors, programmers),common interests, activities (athletes' jargon, philatelists), age(youth slang). It is youth slang that is often called slang(from English slang). The main thing in this linguistic phenomenon is play, a departure from everyday life. Thus, relaxed, laid-back youth slang seeks to escape the boring world of adults. Adults say: Fine! The youth: Cool! Cool! Amazing! Adults: It's too difficult! The youth : Don't burden me! Jargon is also a signal that distinguishes between “insider” and “outsider.”

Argo(from French. argot– closed, indivisible) – conditional words and expressions used by declassed groups. For example: feather - knife, urka - thief, split - betray. Thus, argot is a means of conspiracy, hiding the subject of speech.

Some of the slang and argot vocabulary belongs to not one, but several social groups. Moving from one group to another, such words can change form and meaning: darken in argo - "hide the loot" Then - "cunning during interrogation", in modern youth jargon - "speak unclear", "avoid answering" The jargon vocabulary is replenished by borrowings from other languages ​​and dialects (from English, for example, - shoes “shoes”, bag “bag”; from German - kopf "head"", from dialects - hut "apartment"), by rethinking common words ( wheelbarrow - “car”, ancestors – “parents”), creating words according to word-formation models available in the language from native and foreign language forms ( basketball - "basketball", video recorder - "video recorder").

Jargonisms and argotisms are one of the most mobile parts of vocabulary: jargonisms and argotisms are very quickly replaced by new ones. Nobody remembers the ratings today: Iron! -"Fine", Millet!- "Badly". Tugriks and rupees The 50s of the twentieth century were replaced by the 70s mani, and at 80-90 – money. Slang and argotic vocabulary usually penetrates into the literary language through vernacular and the language of fiction. However, among the linguistic changes of recent decades, researchers note the intensive penetration of slang, stylistically reduced and rude vocabulary into all genres, which is associated with the intensive democratization of public life, and consequently of language, with the abolition of censorship. Words like: chaos, crap, showdown, download rights, hang noodles. Many of these words are no longer perceived as reduced and have become commonly used.

Special vocabulary – these are words whose use is limited to special areas of human activity: science, technology, art, manufacturing, agriculture, medicine. For example: scale, nocturne(music), compass, pilot(marine) hypertension, anesthesia(honey.). Such words are used mainly by people of the same profession, and therefore they are usually called professionalism. TO special vocabulary also apply terms - words that are used to logically precise definition special concepts: morph, phoneme(lingual), hypotenuse, chord(math.), dialysis ( chemical). Terms are the most regulated part of vocabulary. Since science is largely international, terms are created specifically, and their exact content and place in the system of certain designations are agreed upon. However, terms are also words, so they resist regulation, lose their narrowly special character - they become determinologized and become commonly used: A argument 1. An independent variable, on the change of which the change in another quantity depends (mathematics) 2. argument, proof; Concept 1. Logically formulated general thought about a subject, an idea of ​​something (scientific) 2. Representation, information about something . Sum 1. Result, result of addition (math.) 2. Total anything Horizon 1. The visible boundary of the sky and the earth or water surface, as well as the space of the sky above this surface (geographical) 2. The circle of knowledge, ideas.

If we consider vocabulary from the point of view of the breadth of its use, then we can distinguish two unequal layers. The first of them consists of national lexical units, the second includes units associated in their use with a specific territory or social environment.

The national vocabulary includes vocabulary units used by all layers of Russian speakers. Without them, the national language simply could not exist. They are not only commonly used, but in most cases the most commonly used, although according to the frequency of use, as already mentioned, they are divided into active and passive. Common words can be used in all functional styles, have the most varied stylistic connotations, and contain any emotional assessment, but still the bulk of them are made up of neutral lexical units. Here are examples of common words, including some of the most common ones: new, most, Human, People, first, hand, life, necessary, Very, day, want, see, Now, Here, must, Job, think, eye, a country, Earth, world, light, go, our, force, people, place, give, stand, water, question.

In terms of breadth of use, popular words are contrasted primarily with dialect words. Dialect is a type of national language that has a national basis and at the same time some phonetic, lexical and grammatical features and is used by part of the native speakers living in a certain territory or forming a certain social group. Dialects are divided into territorial and social, and according to tradition, the former are usually called dialects (without adding the definition territorial), and the latter - jargons. In Russian literature the term dialect often used as a synonym for the terms adverb And talk The fact is that the dialect division of the Russian language is quite complex and when describing it, it is the latter terms that are used, which more accurately convey the picture of the territorial differentiation of dialects. According to modern understanding, the main units of the territorial division of the Russian language are the Northern Great Russian and Southern Great Russian dialects, between which they include several groups of dialects - minimum units dialect division of the language.

Most of the linguistic features of dialects of any level are national, i.e. has a national basis. However, to varying degrees, they also have local features - phonetic, grammatical and lexical. Here is an example of a ditty recorded in the Pskov region:

Changeable tsai, fragrant tsai,

Boiled water.

Who loves a flower,

There's a lot of bullshit there.

Here you can notice, first of all, the peculiarities of local pronunciation: yakane - pronunciation in the 1st pre-stressed syllable after soft consonants [ʌ] in place [ uh] (flower, damn); clicking pronunciation [ ts] in place [ h] (teapot, tsai, boiled, busty); grammatical features: reduced form 3 l. units part of the verb ( falling in love instead of will love); lexical - word flower in meaning beloved. Such words, the use of which is limited to a certain territory, characteristic of a certain dialect, are called dialectisms. These may include compound names: racing horse, flying squirrel, brother and sister, vanka swamp(the last two are plant names).

Lexical dialectisms have been characteristic of the Russian language from time immemorial due to the complex paths of its development, the foreign language environment of the Russian population, distribution over a vast territory, some regions of which due to feudal fragmentation Ancient Rus' were weakly related to each other. For example, a study of the Pskov Chronicle revealed three groups of lexical dialectisms according to the breadth of their distribution:

• 1) Pskovisms: zavoroniti- close, banish- scold, goiter- unit of measurement, lava- street, area, nonma- Now, stub- district, crossbar- contradiction, rub- to poison, to disturb, chhota- dirty tricks, scrape- shell;
• 2) Pskov-Novgorod (northwestern): buoy, buevishche- tract, lip- district, wrap up- block, seal up- lock yourself, nobility- sign, knowboy- containing a sign, and garden- fishing village, fishing ground, accumulate, crowd up- get ready, from now on- relief, twist- equip, curl up- get equipped, half summer- mid summer, ragosa- argument, hacking away, chop, get chopped up, gardener- personal plot, wedding girls- wedding time, quarter- measure of granular bodies;
• 3) northwestern, western and southern: vlyagomi- time is close to midnight, work around- promise get rid of- fence, get caught- be afraid nobility- property.

These data, gleaned from just one written source, indicate the complexity of the genesis of the vocabulary of Old Russian dialects, the relatively large number of local words in them, and the varying degrees of distribution of the latter in neighboring and non-adjacent groups of dialects.

In the XIX-XX centuries. through the efforts of numerous researchers of Russian folk dialects, collected great amount(hundreds of thousands) of lexical dialectisms. Already in the middle of the 19th century. fundamental collections of local words were published: “The Experience of the Regional Great Russian Dictionary” (1852), “Additions” to it (1858) and “ Dictionary living Great Russian language" by V. I. Dal (1863-1866).

The materials collected by generations of scientists have made it possible to draw interesting conclusions about the types, form, structure, composition, distribution and use of lexical dialectisms.

By their type, first of all, the actual dictionary dialectisms are distinguished, which, taking into account their morphemic composition and phonemic differences, are divided into the following subgroups:

■ words whose roots are not in the literary language: barkan- carrot, clan- a piece of log, onky- corridor, zen- floor, punya- barn, pyatry- flooring, locker- porch, ray- ovin, guntai- lace, chuni- bast shoes made of ropes, ferezi- skirt;

■ words that have a common root with literary words, but differ in affixes and meaning: kubach- a sheaf of straw, scree- grain waste, Ranina- land plowed in the spring for winter crops, harrow- horse in the second year, seducha- hen - hen, pubes- pediment;

■ words that have national roots, the same meaning as literary synonyms, but different affixes: city- hedge, Valencian- felt boots, mesik- month, zhikhar- inhabitant, kid- boy, buy- buy, hesitate- doubt, a lot- hurt, vidko- it is seen, a while ago- recently;

■ words that have differences in sound design compared to literary synonyms, and these differences are not associated with systemic violations of spelling norms such as I'm hanging out, I'm fading; tsai, teapot, affecting almost endless rows of words in which there are corresponding positional or historical alternations. We are talking about differences that arose as a result of the action of various phonetic processes, which were reflected in appearance words, but only a few. For example, under the influence of the disappearance or addition of initial vowels and consonants, words such as cucumber, garden; linen, Tuesday, and dialectisms appeared gherkin, garote; alse, author Due to the rearrangement of sounds in words brownie, isn't it appeared fashionable at just the same. As a result of development on the site of the ancient [ ъ] sound [" uh], but not [ And] in a word whirlwind arose pole Dialect words sing- five, dream- dirt, breeder- nephew differ from the corresponding literary ones by one phoneme, etc. This process of changing the sound appearance of a word under the influence of any phonetic phenomena not associated with a violation of orthoepic norms is called lexicalization. Lexicalization refers to irregular phonetic phenomena.

In addition to dictionary dialectisms, semantic ones are also distinguished - popular words that have acquired a special meaning in dialects. For example: grandma- type of hay, wing- moldboard in the plow, ceiling- attic, mushrooms- lips, coward- rabbit, cockerel - butter mushroom, team- part of the working day, simple- open, plow- sweep, yell- plow, suffer- laugh, have fun.

Another type of dialectisms is phraseological. For example: drink aldyr, slurp- greedily, in large sips; androns are coming, go- about something absurd, about a fable; give a blemba- hit the ear hard; faded grass- the generic name of a plant of the cruciferous family.

Thematically, dialect words are very diverse.

Thus, the dialectisms most commonly used in modern Pskov dialects can be divided into the following groups:

• - names related to field farming: arzhanishche- field after harvesting, grandma- sheaf, rob- rake (about hay), lively- barley, kilos- type of hay, roe- plow, dress- haystack, scree- grain waste, singing- chaff, thinned out- device for drying clover;
• - names related to livestock and poultry farming: harrow-horse in the second year, keelun- boar, insert- wether, lonshina- one-year-old horse, petun- rooster, porosity- breeder ram, seducha- mother hen, sezhnya- perch, Yarushka- unlamed sheep;
• - names related to gardening: barkan- carrot, bulba- potato, vedilyo- tops, Kalika- rutabaga, mint- potato tops, shamok- a weak head of cabbage;
• - fishing terms: flyby- spinner, vest- type of fishing tackle, sikusha- a device for fishing under ice, teneto- fishing net;
• - terms of various crafts: gimlet- drill, put on airs- roll felt boots, fight- comb, brush for combing flax, to bully- comb flax, karzy- device for combing flax, kevets- shuttle in a loom, klevets- hammer for beating millstones, kuzhel- flax prepared for yarn, tesla- an ax for hollowing out gutters, sharply- canvas;
• - names of buildings and their parts: grandma- a place in a Russian stove where ash is raked, fence- partition, blockage- an embankment around a residential building for its insulation, backyard- extension to the barn, pubes- pediment, spotted- bin, zen- floor, exhaustion- basement, rabbit- roof, sticky- windowsill, onky- corridor;
• - names of clothes and shoes: Valencian- felt boots, chickenpox- jacket, blouse, guntai- lace, hashnik- belt, gunka- diaper, denitsa- mitten, secretly- mitten, Kamashi- boots, wire rod- felt boots, thug- skirt, wood chips- stockings without heels, solpa- trouser leg, ferezi- women's dress, skirt;
• - names of dishes: loudmouth- jug, swotting- trough, kvasnik- kvass barrel, korets- ladle, patch- Bowl, ant- clay cup, duckweed- tub, Shabaika- sauna ladle;
• - names of food products: broads- flour products, barkannik- carrot pie, fight- casserole, rubbish- lean meat, kokora- flatbread, full- sweetened water;
• - names of household utensils: bob- toy, gilek- wash basin, stick- poker, teapot- frying pan, bed sheet- sheet, bubble- lamp glass, seryanka- match, ball- bell;
• - names of vehicles: wood burning stoves- sled, Kamyas- special design raft, boat, sledgehammer- cart, delays-double sled with backrest, rogulya- two-wheeled cart;
• - names of natural phenomena: swamp- cloud, cloud, vir- whirlpool, about a hundred- fine-grained granite sand, sweet clover- settled ice layer, locker- dawn, dawn, kipun- spring, steep- ravine, lady- young bush, forest, omshara- mossy swamp, padara- storm, khalipa- rain with snow;
• - names of wild plants: blitz- mushroom, nonsense- small willow shrub, veres- juniper, ironing- cloudberry, gonobol- blueberry, crane- cranberry, kiselka- sorrel, milkman- dandelion, travel companion- plantain, sackcloth- clubmoss;
• - names of animals, birds, fish: veksha- squirrel, jerk- corncrake, ka-list- stork, koshnyak-martin, less- burbot, pekel- butterfly, Sickly- ant, crushed stone-bream, yurlak- male pike;
• - nicknames, nicknames: big woman- mistress of the house, drolya- boyfriend, flaking- glutton, bidding- beggar, twinned- lover, posak- mischievous, hooligan, sister- mistress, buddy- beloved, -aya, comrade- girlfriend;
• - names of signs, qualities: good- bad, screwed- confused, kalyany- hard, rough, Kutny- root (about the tooth), Lena- lazy, simple- open, rude- quiet, meek, slimy- slippery, readable- sober;
• - names of actions and states: beat up- talk, kick- walk around idle, trust- to strain, dream- to cause mischief, get drunk- get used to, get lost- deteriorate;
• - names of signs of action, quality: vgul- loud, gorage- stronger, a while ago- recently, oak- standing, vertical, hefty- Very, filthy- languid, hot, get naked- recently;
• - words expressing relationships between concepts: Vesta- Maybe, gly- near, instead- instead of, pocul- Bye, potul- until, between- between, etc.

The indicated groups of words and names do not exhaust the actively used rural population Pskov region local vocabulary. This is only a small fraction of the vocabulary of Pskov dialects, recorded in the 2nd half of the 19th century. But the material presented shows that dialectisms are mainly names associated with agricultural production, surrounding nature and peasant life, meaning objects and phenomena, signs and processes that play the most significant role in the life of the local population.

Of course, in the speech of speakers of folk dialects there are quite a lot of lexical dialectisms, and not only among older people, but also among young people, even schoolchildren. The very conditions of rural life, the peculiarities of rural work and life often predetermine the excessive use of dialectisms in the speech of villagers. And yet, future school teachers and other representatives of the intelligentsia working in the countryside should, if possible, refrain from using local words themselves, and warn, at least young people, against their use, especially in the presence of literary words with the same meaning.

Another thing fiction. There is no writer telling about the village who would not use lexical dialectisms to verbally characterize his rural heroes or when describing the features of their work and life. From the classics of the 19th century. these are I. Turgenev, N. Nekrasov, L. Tolstoy, among the writers of the 20th century. - I. Bunin, S. Yesenin, M. Sholokhov, F. Abramov, V. Soloukhin, V. Shukshin and many others, whose works, if folk words and expressions were removed from them, would largely lose the flavor of national identity. Thus, in S. Yesenin’s poem, to sketch a picture of a fading day in central Russia, the following are used among the means of artistic depiction and dialectism:

Black, then smelly howl

How can I not caress you, not love you!

I'll go out to the lake in blue go away,

Evening grace flows to the heart.

Gray spinning there are huts,

The squelching reeds softly lull.

The red carpet is bleeding tagans,

In the brushwood are the white eyelids of the moon.

Quietly, squatting, in the spots of dawn

The mowers listen to the old man's story.

Somewhere in the distance, on kukane rivers

The fishermen sing a sleepy song.

The word glows meadow need...

Sad song, you are Russian pain.

In the "Dictionary of Russian Folk Dialects" you can find that in the Ryazan region spinning means an elevated, dry place in a lowland: among swamps and damp places in the forest, on the banks of a river, etc.; howl-share, a piece of land, especially when dividing fields and meadows; go away- part of the river water area adjacent to the mill; kukan- small island; meadow- meadow. Trivet in Dahl's Dictionary it is noted in the meaning of “a round or long iron hoop on legs, under which a fire is made and a brew is placed on it.”

Lexical dialectisms have always served as a source of replenishment of the vocabulary of the Russian literary language, being, as it were, internal borrowings in comparison with external borrowings from foreign languages. For example, the following words belong to dialectal origin: beam, upper reaches, vobla, plowing, doha, strawberries, strawberry, foliage, annoying, roadside, spider, plowman, fishing, taiga, earflaps and etc.

The largest dialect dictionary of the Russian language is the “Dictionary of Russian Folk Dialects”, the development of which began according to the project of Corresponding Member of the USSR Academy of Sciences F. P. Filin in the 1960s; Since 1982, work has continued under the leadership of Professor F. P. Sorokoletov. To date, 35 issues have been published (letters A - F). As indicated in the “Inversion Index to the Dictionary of Russian Folk Dialects” of 2000 (compiled by F. P. Sorokoletov and R. V. Odekov; edited by F. Gledni), the dictionary included about 240,000 words. For comparison, we note that the largest dictionary containing dialect vocabulary so far has been V. I. Dal’s Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language, containing approximately 200,000 words. However, this dictionary is not purely dialectal, for it also includes popular, literary vocabulary.

§ 12. VOCABULARY OF THE MODERN RUSSIAN LANGUAGE FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF ITS ORIGIN

Language is the most living, the most

Abundant and strong connection, co-

Uniting the obsolete, living and

Future generations of the people into one

A great historically living whole.

K.D.Ushinsky

Based on their origin, the vocabulary of the Russian language is divided into two groups: primordial And borrowed. The main part of our vocabulary consists of native Russian words. Based on the time of formation, they can be divided into three layers:

1. Common Slavic (before the 5th century AD);
2. East Slavic, or Old Russian (from the 1st to the 14th centuries);
3. Actually Russian (from the ХІΥ - ХΥ centuries to the present time).

The “pedigree” of the Russian language is continuous, and its beginning is lost in the depths of centuries. The famous linguist Ferdinand de Saussure noted that it is impossible to indicate the date of birth or death of a particular natural language: languages ​​“smoothly develop” from one to another. Thus, scientists have proven that most of the languages ​​of the peoples of Eurasia had a common ancestor - Indo-European proto-language. Indo-European words have a similar meaning and sound composition in Slavic, Western European, and Indian languages. This includes many kinship terms ( mother, son, brother, sister, widow), names of animals and plants ( wolf, birch), actions ( give, take). It is customary to include both Indo-European and actually common Slavic words in the common Slavic lexical fund: in the 1st millennium BC. one of the dialects of the Indo-European language gave rise to the Proto-Slavic language - the common ancestor of all Slavic languages. Actually, common Slavic words (proto-Slavic) form a vast layer in the original Russian vocabulary, their correspondences in other Slavic languages only slightly differ in sound design and meaning. Actually, the common Slavic vocabulary covers the following thematic groups:

Natural phenomena ( spring, winter, frost);

Human body parts ( head, face, brain, eyebrow, mouth);

Vegetable world ( forest, tree, linden, barley);

Animal world ( horse, cat, crow);

Food ( porridge, kvass, milk, lard);

Houseware ( braid, sieve, table);

Housing ( wall, floor, stove, threshold);

Abstract concepts ( good, true, sorrow);

Signs ( old, white, dumb);

Actions ( weave, sow, cook);

Numbers ( five, seven, one hundred).

Around the 6th – 9th centuries. In the Proto-Slavic language, three large dialect groups were formed: southern, western and eastern. The Russian, Belarusian and Ukrainian languages ​​go back to the ancient East Slavic dialects, which emerged as independent languages ​​by the 19th century. The common East Slavic language was called Old Russian. Among the words known only in East Slavic languages ​​are: uncle, nephew, stepdaughter, finch, bullfinch, kite, jackdaw, snowfall, icy sedge, bush brown, brown, gray, dense, watchful, boil, here, completely, today, forty, ninety.

Actually Russian are considered words that appeared in the Russian language after it was separated from Old Russian in the period from the 15th century to the present. Actually, Russian words express concepts associated with the emergence of new objects and phenomena, with the development of science, culture, and technology. In structure, these are derived words, formed both from native Russian and from borrowed lexemes: blizzard, once, mason, household, book depository, fireman, cabbage rolls, jam, painstakingly, intently, daring, sadness.

Among the words of the Russian language there are many borrowings that came into the language in different eras as a result of political, cultural, and economic contacts with other peoples. Among borrowings, Old Church Slavonicisms occupy a special place.

Modern linguistics has powerful methods with which it is possible to lift the veil on how people spoke who lived several thousand years ago and did not leave any written monuments. Scientists use sounds and morphemes to reconstruct the words of the proto-language. The information obtained turns out to be valuable not only for linguists: language opens a window into the past for us. After all, if in the Proto-Indo-European language there were words naming certain objects, tools, products, plants, therefore, they were familiar to our distant ancestors.

The words of the Proto-Indo-European language tell us about the nature that surrounded the ancient Indo-Europeans. Apparently, our ancestors lived in an area with a mountainous landscape: they were surrounded high mountains, hills – the root * Hek, r- is reconstructed with this value. Streams flowed from the mountains: *Hap “fast-flowing river, stream.” Water, devoid of the sign of swiftness, was called differently: * uet -\ *uot -ort.

The following trees grew in this mountainous area: * berHk "birch", * baHk, o "beech", * (s)k, robo "hornbeam", * Hos "ash", *ei\oi "yew", *peuk\uk “fir”, “spruce”, “pine”, * perku “mountain oak”. The names of the gods of sky, thunder and rain in various Indo-European languages ​​are closely associated with them: the common Slavic Perun, the Lithuanian Perkunas, the Latvian Perkons, the ancient Indian Parjanya, the Albanian Perendi, who were addressed in songs with a request to send rain to the earth.

Based on reconstructions of the names of cultivated and wild plants, as well as agricultural tools, it becomes possible to make an assumption about where the ancient Indo-Europeans lived before the Great Migration began. If this is Europe, then not northern Europe - oaks do not grow there; This is not eastern Europe - there are no large mountain ranges there, and certainly not its central, flat part. If this is Asia, then the ancestral home could be in the Mediterranean, along with the Balkans and the northern part of the Middle East: Asia Minor and mountainous areas Upper Mesopotamia.

________________________________________________________________________

*South Slavic languages ​​include: Bulgarian, Serbo-Croatian, Macedonian, Slovenian languages; to West Slavic - Polish, Czech, Slovak, Upper and Lower Sorbian languages

**Semitic languages ​​are one of the branches of the vast macrofamily of Semitic-Hamitic languages. Distributed in Western Asia and Africa. Living languages: Hebrew, western dialects of Syria, eastern dialects of Iraq, Iran, Turkey. The small linguistic family of Transcaucasia, which makes up the Kartvelian languages, includes Georgian, Mingrelian, Laz, and Svan.

The reconstructed common Indo-European names of animals also indicate the southern location of the Indo-European ancestral home: along with wolf, bear, black grouse met and crab.

There is another serious argument in favor of the fact that the Indo-Europeans lived in the territory of the Balkans, including the Middle East and Transcaucasia, Southern Turkmenistan, neighboring for a long time with the peoples of Western Asia. These are numerous borrowings in Indo-European languages ​​from the ancient languages ​​of Western Asia, primarily Proto-Semitic and Proto-Kartvelian**.

(M. Novikova-Grund)

The process of forming the lexical system of a language is very long and complex. Lexicology names two main ways of vocabulary development: 1) the existence and constant replenishment of primordial words (existing for a long time, from time immemorial); 2) borrowing words from other languages.

Original Russian vocabulary

Original Russian words– the main layer of vocabulary of the Russian language. An original Russian word means any word that arose in the Russian language or was inherited by it from an older source language. According to the time of formation in the original Russian vocabulary, several historical layers are distinguished:

The oldest layer is made up Indo-European words are words that have similar or similar semantics and sound composition not only in Slavic, but also in Indian and Western European languages. So, some will be common (or similar) kinship terms(mother, daughter, son, brother, sister, wife), animal names(goat, cow, wolf, sheep, bull), plants(birch, willow, willow, flax), actions(to be, to take, to lead, to see), etc.

The second layer of native Russian vocabulary in terms of time of formation is made up of words Proto-Slavic (common Slavic) languages ​​inherited from the base language that existed before the 6th century. n. e. in the territory inhabited by Slavic peoples. Common Slavic words form a significant layer in the original Russian vocabulary; they also belong to other Slavic languages, although they may differ somewhat in sound design or semantics.

Common Slavic vocabulary includes words called natural phenomena(frost, storm); vegetable world(linden, bird cherry, apple tree, walnut, poplar, root, leaf, bark, branch); animal world, birds(horse, ox, cat, nightingale, starling); Food(kvass, jelly, cheese, lard, porridge); household items, utensils(table, bucket, sieve); home and its parts(mansions, floor, window, threshold, stove); abstract concepts(truth, happiness, goodness, work); time concepts and numbers(evening, year, week, five, seven, hundred); qualities, properties, signs(old, fast, white, dumb).

The third layer of native Russian vocabulary is formed by East Slavic, or Old Russian words that arose in the language of the Eastern Slavs (ancestors of modern Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians) from the 6th to the 14th centuries. Among the words known only in East Slavic languages, the names kinship terms(uncle, stepdaughter, nephew); names of birds, animals(squirrel, viper, jackdaw, chaffinch, bullfinch); names of various properties, qualities, actions(blond, lively, gnarled, wander, collapse, while away); words with temporary meaning(today, after, now); units of account(forty, ninety).

The last layer is actually Russians words that appeared in the Russian language after it was separated from Old Russian (after the 14th – 15th centuries). In other Slavic languages, including Ukrainian and Belarusian, they correspond to others words with the same meaning.

Actually, many are Russian names of actions(influence, explore); household items, food(fork, cover, jam, flatbread); natural phenomena, plants, fruits, animals, birds(blizzard, Antonovka, rook, chicken). Actually, most words with suffixes are Russian –schik- (-chik-), -lk-, -telstv-, -sh(a), -k(a), -ost, -tel: bricklayer, pilot, locker room, abuse, manicurist, winch, nationality, fire extinguisher.

Borrowed vocabulary

The vocabulary of the modern Russian language contains many borrowed words. The reasons for foreign language borrowing can be external (extralingual) and intralingual.

Main external the reason is close political, trade, economic, industrial and cultural ties between peoples. Words from another language come primarily because they mean new things, new concepts. For example. with the advent of such realities as conveyor, laser, TV, their names also entered the Russian language.

Intralingual the reasons for borrowing are that: 1) The appearance of a foreign word makes it possible to eliminate polysemy original word or clarify the corresponding concept (N.: import Export vm.: import, export(polysemantic word); jam (jam in the form of a thick homogeneous mass).

2) A foreign word turns out to be more advantageous if the previously existing designation was a descriptive, ambiguous name: highway vm. highway, cruise vm. boat trip, motel vm. hotel for autotourists.

3) Fashion can also contribute to the emergence of new words (Belinsky called it vagaries of consumption). Thus, the attraction of modern journalists to foreign words as stylistically noticeable contributed to the widespread use of words rating, inauguration, presentation, consensus.

Among the borrowings in the Russian language, Old Church Slavonicisms and borrowings from other languages ​​are distinguished.

Old Slavonicisms

Played a special role in the formation of Russian vocabulary Old Slavonic language. Old Church Slavonic was the language of worship and church books. He became the first literary language Slavs Penetrating into the Old Russian language, elements of Old Church Slavonic vocabulary retained some of the phonetic and morphological features that distinguish Old Church Slavonicisms from Russian words.

Phonetic features of Old Church Slavonicisms:

1) partial combinations ra, la, re, le between consonants in one morpheme instead of Russian full-vowel combinations oro, olo, ere, elo (olo): (grad - city, power - volost, breg - shore, milky - milky);

2) combinations ra, la at the beginning of the word instead of Russian ro, lo (grow - height, rook - boat);

3) combination railway in place of the Russian and(from d+j) (hope - reliable, leader - leader);

4) sound sch in place of Russian h(from t+j) (lighting – candle);

5) initial vowels e according to Russian O, yu - y, a - i (united - one, holy fool - ugly, lamb - lamb);

Morphological signs:

1) consoles pre-, pre-, through-, containing incomplete combinations ( obstacle, predict, excessive);up-, down-, out-(to repay, to overthrow,);

2) suffixes: -zn-, -stv(e), -ni(e), -ti(e), -tel, -stv(o) ) (life, calm, eclipse, guardian), participle suffixes – ush-, -yush-, -ush-, -yush -( burning, lying);

3) the first parts of complex words like good-, god-, good-, sacrifice-, evil-, vanity- (gracious, godly, virtue, sacrifice, superstition).

Semantic features:

1) the word belongs to a religious cult, objects of church use (apostle, gospel, throne, baptize, cassock, incense);

2) words of abstract vocabulary (lawlessness, resurrect, sin, hope).

In the modern Russian language, Old Church Slavonicisms perform the following semantic, style and stylistic functions:

a) are words of a neutral style, are commonly used and have replaced single-root Russian words (enemy, harm, need, captivity);

b) belong to a neutral style, exist in parallel with Russian words, but diverge from them in meaning (head - head, citizen - townsman);

c) belong to the book style of speech (ignite, endure, idle); d) act as cult names and are widespread in church practice (lord, gate, ashes, Christmas);

e) remain within the framework of the book style and have a stylistic function of lofty, poetic, solemn (hand, tree, gold, mouth, eyes).

The Russian language, like any other, has its own lexical system, which was formed over not just centuries, but even millennia. The composition of the vocabulary is different origins. It is highlighted that grammatical vocabulary and the origin of words are studied at school, as well as in philological faculties.

Basic Concepts

The Russian language has a rich lexical system, the formation of which began in the Neolithic era and continues today. Some words disappear from the active vocabulary of the language and become archaisms, while others, on the contrary, penetrate into our speech and become an integral part of it.

In terms of origin, vocabulary is divided into borrowed and native Russian. Original Russian vocabulary makes up about 90% of the total lexical composition. The rest is classified as borrowed. In addition, every year our vocabulary is replenished with new words and concepts that arise as a result of scientific and technological progress.

Original Russian vocabulary

The main layer is the original Russian vocabulary. In this group, the following subgroups are distinguished, correlated with the stages of development not only of the language, but also of the people themselves:

1. Indo-European vocabulary.
2. Common Slavic.
3. Old Russian.
4. Actually Russian.

The words that emerged during these periods form the basis, the backbone of our vocabulary. This is what should be considered first.

Indo-European period

In terms of origin, native Russian vocabulary dates back to the Neolithic period. The period is characterized by the presence of one, common proto-language - Indo-European, which functioned around the 2nd millennium BC. Words in this group include names of animals, concepts for denoting kinship, and food products. For example: mother, daughter, ox, bull, meat and others. All of them have consonant equivalents in other languages. For example, the word mother has a similar sound in English ( mother), and in German languages (mutter).

Pan-Slavic stage

Common Slavic vocabulary arose around the 6th century AD. It was inherited from various tribes living in the Balkans, Central and Eastern Europe.

The vocabulary of this period refers to lexical-semantic groups that are used to designate the names of body parts, animals, natural phenomena, time periods, plants and flowers, names of parts of buildings, tools. The most striking examples of vocabulary preserved from this period: oak, linden, spruce, tree, leaf, millet, barley, bark, hoe, house, canopy, shelter, chicken, goose, kvass, jelly. The layer of this vocabulary is inherent mainly to the Slavic peoples.

Old Russian period

Old Russian (or East Slavic) vocabulary penetrated into our lexicon during the period of settlement of the Slavs throughout the territory of modern Europe, approximately in the 11th-9th centuries. This also includes the period of formation of the state Kievan Rus, that is, IX-XIV centuries. Words such as good, gray, uncle, lace, finch, squirrel, forty, ninety, today.

These words are also characterized by the presence of prefixes in-, you-, up-, up-. For example: platoon, knock out, finish off, catch up.

You can find vocabulary formed during this period only in Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages.

The period of formation of the Russian people

Since the 14th century, new grammatical vocabulary begins to emerge in the Russian language. These words appear after the collapse of the Old Slavic language into Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages. Proper Russian words include such as grumbling, wallpaper, cabbage rolls, experience.

This includes all nouns formed with suffixes -shchik, -shchik, -telstvo, -sh(a). For example: fire extinguisher, partisanship, nationality, checkered. This also includes adverbs peasant style, autumn style, Verbs cringe, crash, worry.

Knowing these features, you can easily calculate the words formed at this stage of development.

This period is the last in the formation of the main layer of Russian lexemes proper.

Borrowed vocabulary

Since ancient times, the Russian people have developed not only trade and cultural ties, but also political and military ones. All this led to language borrowing. Once in Russian, a word in the lexical system of the language changed under its influence and became part of its vocabulary. Borrowed words have significantly enriched the Russian language and introduced a lot of new things into it.

Some words were borrowed completely, while others were modified - they received original Russian suffixes or prefixes, which ultimately led to the formation of a new word of Russian origin. For example, the word “computer” entered our lexicon without changes, but the word “atomic specialist” is already considered native Russian, since it was formed from the borrowed word “atom” according to the native Russian word-formation model.

Borrowings are distinguished from Slavic, as well as Turkic, Latin, Greek, Germanic-Romance languages, which include English and German, Italian, Spanish, and Dutch.

Old Slavonicisms

After Russia adopted Christianity at the end of the 10th century, many words came into the Russian language. This was connected with the appearance of Church Slavonic books in Rus'. Old Church Slavonic, or Old Bulgarian, was used by a number of Slavic states as a literary written language, which was used to translate Greek church books.

From it, ecclesiastical denoting abstract concepts came into the Russian language. These include priest, cross, power, disaster, agreement and many others. Initially, these words were used only in written, book speech, but over time they penetrated into oral speech.

From the point of view of origin, the vocabulary of the Church Slavonic language has the following distinctive features:

1. The so-called disagreement is at the root of words. For example: gate or captivity. In this case, the options will be full gate and full.
2. Combination railway in the roots of words. A striking example is the word walking.
3. The presence of a consonant in words sch, for example in the word lighting.
4. Vowel e at the beginning of a word and before a hard consonant: unit.
5. Syllables la-, ra- at the beginning of the word. Eg: rook, equal.
6. Availability of consoles through-, through-. For example: repay, excessive.
7. Suffixes -sti-, -ush-, -yush-, -ash-, -box-: knowledgeable, burning, melting.
Parts of the first words of God are good-, evil-, sin-, soul-, good-: God-fearing, evil-will, blessing.

These words are still used in Russian today. At the same time, few people suspect that in fact the named lexemes are not originally Russian and have foreign roots. They can be found especially often in biblical texts and works of classics of Russian literature.

Polish lexemes

Considering the question of what kind of vocabulary there is from the point of view of origin, one cannot help but recall the borrowings from the Polish language, which began in the 17th-18th centuries. From the Western Slavic language words such as belongings, paint, rabbit, periwinkle, jam. It is worth noting that they replenished the stock of not only Russian, but also Ukrainian and Belarusian languages.

Greek loanwords

A significant layer of borrowed vocabulary is Greek. It began to penetrate into our language during the period of pan-Slavic unity. The oldest lexical “gifts” include words such as chamber, bed, boiler.

In the period from the 9th to the 11th centuries the following words were borrowed: anathema, angel, mathematics, lamp, history, philosophy, notebook, bathhouse, lantern. In a later period, words related to words from the fields of art and science were borrowed: comedy, anapest, logic, analogy and many other concepts that are firmly entrenched in the terminology of most modern sciences.

It is worth noting that thanks to the influence of Greece and Byzantium, the vocabulary and phraseology of the Russian language have been significantly enriched. However, the influence of these countries was felt not only by such sciences as philology, but also by mathematics, physics, chemistry, and art.

Latin language

In the period from the 16th to the 53th centuries, Latin words entered the Russian language, enriching the lexical fund in the field of scientific, technical, socio-political terminology. They enter mainly through the Ukrainian and Polish languages. This was especially facilitated by the development of education and science, as well as the historical and cultural ties of these countries.

From Latin language such familiar concepts as vacation, office, director, auditorium, school, process, public, revolution and others.

Turkic language

Our paths have long crossed with the Tatars and Turks. From the Turkic language words such as pearls, beads, caravan, money, bazaar, watermelon, robe, fog, bloomers, names of horse colors: roan, bay, dun.

Mostly the borrowing came from the Tatar language. Associated with trade, cultural or military ties that have existed between our peoples for several centuries.

Scandinavian languages

There are very few borrowings from the Scandinavian languages ​​- Swedish, Norwegian. They penetrated into the early period due to trade ties that existed between our peoples even in the pre-Christian period.

The most striking words that have penetrated the Russian lexical system: names Igor And Oleg, product names - herring, pood, hook, mast, sneak.

Western European languages

The origin of vocabulary and its development are also closely related to a number of European languages. After the reforms of Peter I, in the 17th-18th centuries, the Russian language included lexemes from Western European languages.

From German a number of words came into our language to denote military, commercial and everyday vocabulary, science and art: bill, headquarters, corporal, tie, easel, resort, landscape.

Dutch “shared” nautical terms with Russian: shipyard, harbor, pilot, fleet, sailor. Nautical terms also come from in English: Midshipman, Brig.

Words such as boycott, tunnel, football, sports, finish, cupcake, pudding.

The 20th century also includes words from the technical and sports, financial, commercial spheres, and art. New words that replenished our lexical system at that time: computer, file, byte, overtime, broker, leasing, talk show, thriller, briefing, impeachment.

In the 18th-19th centuries, words from the French language also penetrated into the Russian language - bracelet, wardrobe, vest, coat, broth, cutlet, toilet, battalion, garrison, actor, play, director.

Musical terms and terms from the field of art came to Russian from Italian and Spanish: aria, tenor, libretto, sonata, carnival, gondola, serenade, guitar.

All of them are still actively functioning in our lexical system, and we can learn about where and how they came from dictionaries.

Neologisms

On modern stage The lexical system of the Russian language is replenished with new words. They enter the language through the emergence of fresh concepts and phenomena. When an object or thing appears, new words arise to designate it. They do not immediately enter the active vocabulary.

For some time, the word is considered a neologism, then it becomes commonly used and firmly becomes part of the language. Previously, neologism words were pioneer, Komsomol member, cosmonaut, Khrushchevite And so on. Now no one will suspect neologisms in them.

Dictionaries

In order to check which vocabulary, in terms of origin, is used in a particular case, you can turn to etymological dictionaries. They describe in detail the origin of the word and its initial etymology. You can use the school and short ones edited by N. Shansky, “Russian Etymological Dictionary” by A. E. Anikin or “Etymological Dictionary” by P. A. Krylov and others.

Find out the meaning foreign words, which came to us from foreign languages, you can use the wonderful “Dictionary of Foreign Words” edited by Ozhegov.

Studying at school

Vocabulary from the point of view of origin and use is usually studied in the school course of the Russian language in the section “Lexicology and phraseology”. The closest attention to this topic is paid in grades 5-6, as well as in grades 10. Schoolchildren learn the origin of words and phraseological units, their meaning, learn to distinguish between them, and work with various dictionaries.

In some cases, teachers may conduct entire electives and extracurricular activities dedicated to studying the origins of words.

What materials can be used when studying the topic “Vocabulary from the point of view of origin”? Table with classification and examples, texts on different languages dictionaries containing words borrowed from the Russian language.

Studying at University

Vocabulary from the point of view of origin is studied in particular detail at the university, at the Faculty of Philology. Several classes are devoted to this topic in the course “Lexicology and Phraseology of the Modern Russian Language.” On practical exercises students analyze various texts, finding native Russian and borrowed words in them, classify them, and work with dictionaries. The stylistic possibilities of borrowed, obsolete words are also determined.

At lectures and seminars, the classification of vocabulary by origin, use and functioning in the modern Russian language is discussed in detail. This approach makes it possible to interest students and to most deeply master the proposed knowledge on the topic being studied.

conclusions

Any word in the lexical system of a language has its own history and origin. Some words have been functioning in our language for a long time, since the period when a single, Indo-European language, others came to us at different times from Slavic or European languages, others arose during the development of modern information technologies.

Understanding the history of the emergence of certain words will help us not only understand their deep meaning, but also trace the development of the culture of our country in a given period.