Time passes and a bygone era becomes history. The family of the last emperor of the Romanov dynasty - Nicholas II.
History is interesting and multifaceted; a lot has changed over the centuries. If now we perceive the world around us as commonplace, then palaces, castles, towers, estates, carriages, household items of that time are already distant history for us and sometimes are the subject of study by archaeologists. An ordinary inkwell, pen, and abacus can no longer be found in a modern school. But just a century ago, education was different.
"Future Monarchs"
All representatives of the imperial family, future monarchs, received an excellent education. Training began in early age, first of all, they taught literacy, arithmetic, foreign languages, then there was the study of other disciplines. It was compulsory for boys military training, also taught them dancing, and elegant literature, and everything that a well-educated young man was obliged to know. As a rule, training took place on a religious basis. Teachers for royalty were chosen carefully; they had to provide not only knowledge, but also instill spiritual and moral ideas and skills: accuracy, diligence, respect for elders. The rulers of the House of Romanov aroused sincere admiration among their subjects and served as an example for everyone.
Family of Emperor Nicholas II
"OTMA"
We can see a positive example in raising and educating children in the family of the last emperor of the Romanov dynasty, Nicholas II. His family consisted of four daughters and a son. The daughters were conditionally divided into two pairs: the older couple – Olga and Tatyana, and the younger – Maria and Anastasia. The sisters made up a collective name from their letters - OTMA, taking capital letters their names, and signed letters and invitations like that. Tsarevich Alexei was the most youngest child and a favorite of the whole family.
OTMA in profile. 1914 Empress Alexandra Feodorovna raised her children according to religious traditions; the children read morning and evening prayers, Gospel, among the disciplines taught was the Law of God.
Archpriest A. Vasiliev and Tsarevich Alexei "The Tsar's Wife"
Traditionally, the sovereign's wife could not be involved in raising her daughters. However, Alexandra Fedorovna strictly selected teachers for her children, was present at lessons, formed the range of interests of her daughters and their schedule - the girls never wasted time, almost did not appear at balls, and were not at social events for long.
Emperor Nicholas II and Empress Alexandra Feodorovna (center) and their children The children's classes were structured in a fairly strict manner. They got up at 8 o'clock, drank tea and studied until 11 o'clock. Teachers came from Petrograd. Only Gibbs and Gilliard lived in Tsarskoye Selo.
Sydney Gibbs and Grand Duchess Anastasia Sometimes after classes, before breakfast, we went for a short walk. After breakfast there are music and handicraft classes.
Anastasia knits in the Lilac living room "Classrooms of the Grand Duchesses"
In the classroom of the senior Grand Duchesses Olga and Tatiana, the walls were covered with matte olive-colored wallpaper, and the floor was covered with a sea-green beaver carpet. All furniture is made of ash. A large study table sat in the middle of the room and was illuminated by a six-armed chandelier that could be lowered. On one of the shelves there was a bust of I.V. Gogol. There was a lesson schedule on the side wall. The cabinets contained books, mostly religious and patriotic, as well as textbooks. The girls' library had many books in English. Teachers kept a journal where homework was recorded and grades were given on a five-point scale.
Classroom of Grand Duchesses Olga and Tatiana in the Alexander Palace In the classroom of the younger princesses Maria and Anastasia, the walls are painted white. The furniture is ash. The room contained stuffed birds and children's books by Russian and French authors. There were especially many books by the famous children's writer L.A. Charskaya. On the walls are religious drawings and watercolors, a lesson schedule, and a couple of children's announcements of a humorous nature. Since the girls were still small, dolls with their toilets were also kept in the classroom. Behind the partition there is toy furniture and games.
“The classroom of Tsarevich Alexei”
On the second floor there was also the classroom of Tsarevich Alexei. Its walls were painted with white mastic paint. The furniture, as everywhere else, was made of simple painted ash wood. On the half-cabinets stretching along the walls were teaching aids, abacus, map of the growth of Russia under the Romanovs, educational collection of Ural minerals and rocks, microscope. Books of educational and military content were stored in the cabinets. There were especially many books on the history of the Romanov dynasty, published for the 300th anniversary of the dynasty. In addition, they contained a collection of transparencies on the history of Russia, reproductions of artists, albums and various gifts. On the door is the lesson schedule and Suvorov’s testament.
The classroom of Tsarevich Alexei in the Alexander Palace "Music room"
In the “children’s half” there was also a room that was used as a teacher’s room and at the same time as a music room. Girls’ “own” libraries played a major role in the educational process. Now these books are stored in Moscow in the Russian State Library. The Tsarevich's teachers occupied a special place in the royal family. Of these, the most famous is the Swiss Pierre Gilliard; he was with the royal family in Yekaterinburg, where he miraculously managed to survive and largely thanks to him, we know about last days royal family.
Music room "Week schedule"
The main backbone of teachers was formed when teaching gymnasium disciplines to the royal daughters. For example, in 1908/09 academic year they were taught:
Russian language (Petrov, 9 lessons per week);
English language(Gibbs, 6 lessons per week);
French (Gilliard, 8 lessons per week);
arithmetic (Sobolev, 6 lessons per week);
history and geography (Ivanov, 2 lessons per week).
Thus, there were 31 lessons per week, that is, with a five-day lesson schedule - 6 lessons per day. Teachers, like doctors, were usually selected based on recommendations. Talking about studying foreign languages, it should be noted that the heir began to teach them quite late. On the one hand, this was associated with his constant ailments and prolonged rehabilitation periods, and on the other hand, the royal family deliberately postponed teaching the heir foreign languages.
Tsarevich Alexei with Russian language teacher P. Petrov. Peterhof “Teaching the heir foreign languages”
Nicholas II and Alexandra Feodorovna believed that Alexei should, first of all, develop a pure Russian accent. P. Gilliard gave the first French lesson to the Tsarevich on October 2, 1912 in Spala, but due to illness the classes were interrupted. Relatively regular classes with the Tsarevich began in the second half of 1913. Vyrubova highly appreciated the pedagogical abilities of teachers of French and English: “The first teachers were the Swiss Monsieur Gilliard and the Englishman Mr. Gibbs. The best choice was hardly possible. It seemed absolutely wonderful how the boy changed under the influence of these two people, how his manners improved and how well he began to treat people.”
P. Gilliard with the Grand Duchesses Olga and Tatiana. Livadia. 1911 “Schedule for the day of Tsarevich Alexei”
As Tsarevich Alexei grew older, the teaching load gradually increased. Unlike his great-grandfather, who was woken up at 6 a.m., the Tsarevich was woken up at 8 a.m.:
He was given 45 minutes to pray and put himself in order;
From 8.45 to 9.15 morning tea was served, which he drank alone. The girls and parents drank morning tea separately;
from 9.20 to 10.50 there were two first lessons (the first lesson - 40 minutes, the second - 50 minutes) with a break of 10 minutes;
a long break with a walk lasted 1 hour 20 minutes (10.50–12.10);
then there was another 40-minute lesson (12.10–12.50);
A little over an hour was allotted for breakfast (12.50–14.00). As a rule, the whole family gathered at one table for breakfast for the first time, unless there were official events that day.
After breakfast, the 10-year-old Tsarevich rested for an hour and a half (14–14.30);
then again followed a walk, classes and games on fresh air(14.30–16.40). At this time, he had a chance to communicate with his father, who was walking in the park, or his mother.
This was followed by the fourth lesson, lasting 55 minutes (16.45–17.40).
The Tsarevich had 45 minutes for lunch (17.45–18.30). He dined alone or with his sisters. My parents had dinner much later.
After lunch, the Tsarevich prepared his homework for an hour and a half (18.30–19.00);
a mandatory part of the Tsarevich’s “working day” was a half-hour massage (19.00–19.30);
after the massage there were games and a light dinner (19.30–20.30);
then the Tsarevich got ready for bed (20.30–21.00), prayed and went to bed (21.00–21.30).
Tsarevich Alexei with teachers: P. Gilliard, Palace Commandant V. Voeikov, S. Gibbs, P. Petrov "Training in War Conditions"
In 1914, the First World War began. Classes lasted six days a week, 4 lessons a day. There were a total of 22 lessons per week. Particular emphasis was placed on learning languages. By number of hours they were distributed as follows: French - 6 lessons per week; Russian language – 5 lessons per week; English – 4 lessons. Other subjects: God's Law – 3 lessons; arithmetic – 3 lessons and geography – 2 lessons per week.
Epilogue
As we can see, the daily routine was intense, there was practically no free time even for games. Tsarevich Alexei often exclaimed: “When I am king, there will be no poor and unhappy! I want everyone to be happy." And if not for the revolution of 1917, then it is worth noting with confidence that Tsarevich Alexei would have made every effort to bring these words to life.
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Titled from birth His Imperial Highness Grand Duke Nikolai Alexandrovich. After the death of his grandfather, Emperor Alexander II, in 1881 he received the title of Heir Tsesarevich.
...neither by his figure nor by his ability to speak, the tsar touched the soldier’s soul and did not make the impression that was necessary to lift the spirit and strongly attract hearts to himself. He did what he could, and one cannot blame him in this case, but he did not produce good results in the sense of inspiration.
Childhood, education and upbringing
Nikolai received his home education as part of a large gymnasium course and in the 1890s - according to a specially written program that combined the course of the state and economic departments of the university law faculty with the course of the Academy of the General Staff.
The upbringing and training of the future emperor took place under the personal guidance of Alexander III on a traditional religious basis. Nicholas II's studies were conducted according to a carefully developed program for 13 years. The first eight years were devoted to the subjects of the extended gymnasium course. Special attention was devoted to the study of political history, Russian literature, English, German and French, which Nikolai Alexandrovich mastered to perfection. The next five years were devoted to the study of military affairs, legal and economic sciences necessary for a statesman. Lectures were given by outstanding Russian academicians of world renown: N. N. Beketov, N. N. Obruchev, Ts. A. Cui, M. I. Dragomirov, N. H. Bunge, K. P. Pobedonostsev and others. Presbyter I. L. Yanyshev taught the Tsarevich canon law in connection with the history of the church, the most important departments of theology and the history of religion.
Emperor Nicholas II and Empress Alexandra Feodorovna. 1896
For the first two years, Nikolai served as a junior officer in the ranks of the Preobrazhensky Regiment. For two summer seasons he served in the ranks of a cavalry hussar regiment as a squadron commander, and then a camp training in the ranks of the artillery. On August 6 he was promoted to colonel. At the same time, his father introduces him to the affairs of governing the country, inviting him to participate in meetings of the State Council and the Cabinet of Ministers. At the suggestion of the Minister of Railways S. Yu. Witte, Nikolai in 1892, in order to gain experience in government affairs, was appointed chairman of the committee for the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway. By the age of 23, Nikolai Romanov was a widely educated man.
The emperor's education program included travel to various provinces of Russia, which he made together with his father. To complete his education, his father allocated a cruiser at his disposal for a trip to the Far East. In nine months, he and his retinue visited Austria-Hungary, Greece, Egypt, India, China, Japan, and later returned to the capital of Russia by land through all of Siberia. In Japan, an attempt was made on Nicholas's life (see Otsu Incident). A shirt with blood stains is kept in the Hermitage.
His education was combined with deep religiosity and mysticism. “The Emperor, like his ancestor Alexander I, was always mystically inclined,” recalled Anna Vyrubova.
The ideal ruler for Nicholas II was Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich the Quiet.
Lifestyle, habits
Tsarevich Nikolai Alexandrovich Mountain landscape. 1886 Paper, watercolor Signature on the drawing: “Nicky. 1886. July 22” The drawing is pasted on the passe-partout
Most of the time, Nicholas II lived with his family in the Alexander Palace. In the summer he vacationed in Crimea at the Livadia Palace. For recreation, he also annually made two-week trips around the Gulf of Finland and the Baltic Sea on the yacht “Standart”. I read both light entertaining literature and serious scientific works, often on historical topics. He smoked cigarettes, the tobacco for which was grown in Turkey and sent to him as a gift from the Turkish Sultan. Nicholas II was fond of photography and also loved watching films. All his children also took photographs. Nikolai began keeping a diary at the age of 9. The archive contains 50 voluminous notebooks - the original diary for 1882-1918. Some of them were published.
Nikolai and Alexandra
The first meeting of the Tsarevich with his future wife took place in 1884, and in 1889 Nicholas asked his father for his blessing to marry her, but was refused.
All correspondence between Alexandra Feodorovna and Nicholas II has been preserved. Only one letter from Alexandra Feodorovna was lost; all her letters were numbered by the empress herself.
Contemporaries assessed the empress differently.
| The Empress was infinitely kind and infinitely compassionate. It was these properties of her nature that were the motivating reasons for the phenomena that gave rise to intriguing people, people without conscience and heart, people blinded by the thirst for power, to unite among themselves and use these phenomena in the eyes of the dark masses and the idle and narcissistic part of the intelligentsia, greedy for sensations, to discredit The Royal Family for their dark and selfish purposes. The Empress became attached with all her soul to people who really suffered or skillfully acted out their suffering in front of her. She herself suffered too much in life, both as a conscious person - for her homeland oppressed by Germany, and as a mother - for her passionately and endlessly beloved son. Therefore, she could not help but be too blind to other people approaching her, who were also suffering or who seemed to be suffering...
...The Empress, of course, sincerely and strongly loved Russia, just as the Sovereign loved her. |
Coronation
Accession to the throne and beginning of reign
Letter from Emperor Nicholas II to Empress Maria Feodorovna. January 14, 1906 Autograph. “Trepov is irreplaceable for me, a kind of secretary. He is experienced, smart and careful in giving advice. I let him read thick notes from Witte and then he reports them to me quickly and clearly. This is, of course, a secret from everyone!”
The coronation of Nicholas II took place on May 14 (26) of the year (for the victims of coronation celebrations in Moscow, see “Khodynka”). In the same year, the All-Russian Industrial and Art Exhibition was held in Nizhny Novgorod, which he attended. In 1896, Nicholas II also made a big trip to Europe, meeting with Franz Joseph, Wilhelm II, Queen Victoria (Alexandra Feodorovna's grandmother). The end of the trip was the arrival of Nicholas II in the capital of the allied France, Paris. One of the first personnel decisions of Nicholas II was the dismissal of I.V. Gurko from the post of Governor-General of the Kingdom of Poland and the appointment of A.B. Lobanov-Rostovsky to the post of Minister of Foreign Affairs after the death of N.K. Girs. The first of the big ones international action Nicholas II became the Triple Intervention.
Economic policy
In 1900, Nicholas II sent Russian troops to suppress the Yihetuan uprising together with the troops of other European powers, Japan and the United States.
The revolutionary newspaper Osvobozhdenie, published abroad, did not hide its fears: “ If Russian troops defeat the Japanese... then freedom will be calmly strangled to the sounds of cheers and the ringing of bells of the triumphant Empire» .
The difficult situation of the tsarist government after the Russo-Japanese War prompted German diplomacy to make another attempt in July 1905 to tear Russia away from France and conclude a Russian-German alliance. Wilhelm II invited Nicholas II to meet in July 1905 in the Finnish skerries, near the island of Bjorke. Nikolai agreed and signed the agreement at the meeting. But when he returned to St. Petersburg, he abandoned it, since peace with Japan had already been signed.
American researcher of the era T. Dennett wrote in 1925:
Few people now believe that Japan was deprived of the fruits of its upcoming victories. The opposite opinion prevails. Many believe that Japan was already exhausted by the end of May and that only the conclusion of peace saved her from collapse or complete defeat in a clash with Russia.
Defeat in the Russo-Japanese War (the first in half a century) and the subsequent brutal suppression of the revolution of 1905-1907. (subsequently aggravated by the appearance of Rasputin at court) led to a decline in the authority of the emperor in the circles of the intelligentsia and nobility, so much so that even among the monarchists there were ideas about replacing Nicholas II with another Romanov.
The German journalist G. Ganz, who lived in St. Petersburg during the war, noted a different position of the nobility and intelligentsia in relation to the war: “ The common secret prayer not only of liberals, but also of many moderate conservatives at that time was: “God, help us to be defeated.”» .
Revolution of 1905-1907
With the outbreak of the Russo-Japanese War, Nicholas II tried to unite society against an external enemy, making significant concessions to the opposition. So, after the murder of the Minister of Internal Affairs V.K. Plehve by a Socialist-Revolutionary militant, he appointed P.D. Svyatopolk-Mirsky, who was considered a liberal, to his post. On December 12, 1904, a decree “On plans for improving the State order” was issued, promising the expansion of the rights of zemstvos, insurance of workers, emancipation of foreigners and people of other faiths, and the elimination of censorship. At the same time, the sovereign declared: “I will never, under any circumstances, agree to a representative form of government, because I consider it harmful for the people entrusted to me by God.”
...Russia has outgrown the form of the existing system. It strives for a legal system based on civil freedom... It is very important to reform the State Council on the basis of the prominent participation of the elected element in it...
Opposition parties took advantage of the expansion of freedoms to intensify attacks on the tsarist government. On January 9, 1905, a large labor demonstration took place in St. Petersburg, addressing the Tsar with political and socio-economic demands. Demonstrators clashed with troops, resulting in a large death toll. These events became known as Bloody Sunday, the victims of which, according to V. Nevsky's research, were no more than 100-200 people. A wave of strikes swept across the country, and the national outskirts became agitated. In Courland, the Forest Brothers began to massacre local German landowners, and the Armenian-Tatar massacre began in the Caucasus. Revolutionaries and separatists received support with money and weapons from England and Japan. Thus, in the summer of 1905, the English steamer John Grafton, which ran aground, was detained in the Baltic Sea, carrying several thousand rifles for Finnish separatists and revolutionary militants. There were several uprisings in the navy and in various cities. The largest was the December uprising in Moscow. At the same time, Socialist Revolutionary and anarchist individual terror gained great momentum. In just a couple of years, thousands of officials, officers and policemen were killed by revolutionaries - in 1906 alone, 768 were killed and 820 representatives and agents of the authorities were wounded.
The second half of 1905 was marked by numerous unrest in universities and even in theological seminaries: due to the unrest, almost 50 secondary theological educational institutions were closed. The adoption of a temporary law on university autonomy on August 27 caused a general strike of students and stirred up teachers at universities and theological academies.
The ideas of senior dignitaries about the current situation and ways out of the crisis were clearly manifested during four secret meetings under the leadership of the emperor, held in 1905-1906. Nicholas II was forced to liberalize, moving to constitutional rule, while simultaneously suppressing armed uprisings. From a letter from Nicholas II to the Dowager Empress Maria Feodorovna dated October 19, 1905:
Another way is to provide civil rights to the population - freedom of speech, press, assembly and unions and personal integrity;…. Witte passionately defended this path, saying that although it was risky, it was nevertheless the only one at the moment...
On August 6, 1905, the manifesto on the establishment of the State Duma, the law on the State Duma and the regulations on elections to the Duma were published. But the revolution, which was gaining strength, easily overcame the acts of August 6; in October, an all-Russian political strike began, over 2 million people went on strike. On the evening of October 17, Nicholas signed a manifesto promising: “1. To grant the population the unshakable foundations of civil freedom on the basis of actual personal inviolability, freedom of conscience, speech, assembly and association.” On April 23, 1906, the Basic State Laws of the Russian Empire were approved.
Three weeks after the manifesto, the government granted amnesty to political prisoners, except for those convicted of terrorism, and a little over a month later it abolished preliminary censorship.
From a letter from Nicholas II to the Dowager Empress Maria Feodorovna on October 27:
The people were outraged by the impudence and insolence of the revolutionaries and socialists...hence the Jewish pogroms. It is amazing how unanimously and immediately this happened in all the cities of Russia and Siberia. In England, of course, they write that these riots were organized by the police, as always - an old, familiar fable!.. Incidents in Tomsk, Simferopol, Tver and Odessa clearly showed what lengths an angry crowd could reach when it surrounded houses in The revolutionaries locked themselves in and set them on fire, killing anyone who came out.
During the revolution, in 1906, Konstantin Balmont wrote the poem “Our Tsar”, dedicated to Nicholas II, which turned out to be prophetic:
Our king is Mukden, our king is Tsushima,
Our king is a bloody stain,
The stench of gunpowder and smoke,
In which the mind is dark. Our king is a blind misery,
Prison and whip, trial, execution,
The king is a hanged man, so half as low,
What he promised, but didn’t dare give. He is a coward, he feels with hesitation,
But it will happen, the hour of reckoning awaits.
Who began to reign - Khodynka,
He will end up standing on the scaffold.
The decade between two revolutions
On August 18 (31), 1907, an agreement was signed with Great Britain to delimit spheres of influence in China, Afghanistan and Iran. This was an important step in the formation of the Entente. On June 17, 1910, after lengthy disputes, a law was adopted that limited the rights of the Sejm of the Grand Duchy of Finland (see Russification of Finland). In 1912, Mongolia, which gained independence from China as a result of the revolution that took place there, became a de facto protectorate of Russia.
Nicholas II and P. A. Stolypin
The first two State Dumas were unable to conduct regular legislative work - the contradictions between the deputies on the one hand, and the Duma with the emperor on the other, were insurmountable. So, immediately after the opening, in a response to the speech of Nicholas II from the throne, the Duma members demanded the liquidation of the State Council (the upper house of parliament), the transfer of appanage (private estates of the Romanovs), monastic and state lands to the peasants.
Military reform
Diary of Emperor Nicholas II for 1912-1913.
Nicholas II and the church
The beginning of the 20th century was marked by a reform movement, during which the church sought to restore the canonical conciliar structure, there was even talk of convening a council and establishing the patriarchate, and there were attempts in the year to restore the autocephaly of the Georgian Church.
Nicholas agreed with the idea of an “All-Russian Church Council,” but changed his mind and on March 31 of the year, at the report of the Holy Synod on the convening of the council, he wrote: “ I admit it is impossible to do..."and established a Special (pre-conciliar) presence in the city to resolve issues church reform and Pre-Conciliar meeting in
An analysis of the most famous canonizations of that period - Seraphim of Sarov (), Patriarch Hermogenes (1913) and John Maksimovich ( -) allows us to trace the process of growing and deepening crisis in relations between church and state. Under Nicholas II the following were canonized:
4 days after Nicholas’s abdication, the Synod published a message supporting the Provisional Government.
Chief Prosecutor of the Holy Synod N. D. Zhevakhov recalled:
Our Tsar was one of the greatest ascetics of the Church of recent times, whose exploits were overshadowed only by his high title of Monarch. standing on last stage ladders of human glory, the Emperor saw above him only the sky, towards which his holy soul irresistibly strived...
World War I
Along with the creation of special meetings, in 1915 Military-Industrial Committees began to emerge - public organizations of the bourgeoisie that were semi-oppositional in nature.
Emperor Nicholas II and front commanders at a meeting of Headquarters.
After such severe defeats for the army, Nicholas II, not considering it possible for himself to remain aloof from hostilities and considering it necessary in these difficult conditions to take upon himself full responsibility for the position of the army, to establish the necessary agreement between Headquarters and the governments, and to put an end to the disastrous isolation of power, standing at the head of the army, from power, governing the country, on August 23, 1915, assumed the title of Supreme Commander-in-Chief. At the same time, some members of the government, the high army command and public circles opposed this decision of the emperor.
Due to the constant movements of Nicholas II from Headquarters to St. Petersburg, as well as insufficient knowledge of issues of troop leadership, the command of the Russian army was concentrated in the hands of his chief of staff, General M.V. Alekseev, and General V.I. Gurko, who replaced him in late and early 1917. Autumn call 1916 put 13 million people under arms, and losses in the war exceeded 2 million.
During 1916, Nicholas II replaced four chairmen of the Council of Ministers (I.L. Goremykin, B.V. Sturmer, A.F. Trepov and Prince N.D. Golitsyn), four ministers of internal affairs (A.N. Khvostova, B. V. Sturmer, A. A. Khvostov and A. D. Protopopov), three foreign ministers (S. D. Sazonov, B. V. Sturmer and Pokrovsky, N. N. Pokrovsky), two military ministers (A. A. Polivanov, D. S. Shuvaev) and three ministers of justice (A. A. Khvostov, A. A. Makarov and N. A. Dobrovolsky).
Probing the world
Nicholas II, hoping for an improvement in the situation in the country if the spring offensive of 1917 was successful (which was agreed upon at the Petrograd Conference), did not intend to conclude a separate peace with the enemy - he saw the victorious end of the war as the most important means of strengthening the throne. Hints that Russia might begin negotiations for a separate peace were a normal diplomatic game and forced the Entente to recognize the need to establish Russian control over the Mediterranean straits.
February Revolution of 1917
The war affected the system of economic ties - primarily between city and countryside. Famine began in the country. The authorities were discredited by a chain of scandals such as the intrigues of Rasputin and his entourage, as they were then called “ dark forces" But it was not the war that gave birth in Russia agrarian question, acute social contradictions, conflicts between the bourgeoisie and tsarism and within the ruling camp. Nicholas's commitment to the idea of unlimited autocratic power extremely narrowed the possibility of social maneuvering and knocked out the support of Nicholas's power.
After the situation at the front stabilized in the summer of 1916, the Duma opposition, in alliance with conspirators among the generals, decided to take advantage of the current situation to overthrow Nicholas II and replace him with another tsar. The leader of the cadets, P. N. Milyukov, subsequently wrote in December 1917:
Since February, it was clear that Nicholas’s abdication could take place any day now, the date was given as February 12-13, it was said that a “great act” was coming - the abdication of the Emperor from the throne in favor of the heir, Tsarevich Alexei Nikolaevich, that the regent would be Grand Duke Mikhail Alexandrovich.
On February 23, 1917, a strike began in Petrograd, and 3 days later it became general. On the morning of February 27, 1917, there was an uprising of soldiers in Petrograd and their union with the strikers. A similar uprising took place in Moscow. The queen, who did not understand what was happening, wrote reassuring letters on February 25
The queues and strikes in the city are more than provocative... This is a “hooligan” movement, boys and girls run around shouting that they don’t have bread just to incite, and the workers don’t let others work. If it were very cold, they would probably stay at home. But all this will pass and calm down if only the Duma behaves decently
On February 25, 1917, with the manifesto of Nicholas II, the meetings of the State Duma were stopped, which further inflamed the situation. Chairman of the State Duma M.V. Rodzianko sent a number of telegrams to Emperor Nicholas II about the events in Petrograd. This telegram was received at Headquarters on February 26, 1917 at 10 p.m. 40 min.
I most humbly inform Your Majesty that the popular unrest that began in Petrograd is becoming spontaneous and of threatening proportions. Their foundations are the lack of baked bread and the weak supply of flour, inspiring panic, but mainly complete distrust in the authorities, which are unable to lead the country out of a difficult situation.
The civil war has begun and is flaring up. ...There is no hope for the garrison troops. The reserve battalions of the guards regiments are in revolt... Order the legislative chambers to be reconvened to repeal your highest decree... If the movement spreads to the army... the collapse of Russia, and with it the dynasty, is inevitable.
Abdication, exile and execution
Abdication of the throne by Emperor Nicholas II. March 2, 1917 Typescript. 35 x 22. In the lower right corner is the signature of Nicholas II in pencil: Nikolai; in the lower left corner in black ink over a pencil there is an attestation inscription in the hand of V. B. Frederiks: Minister of the Imperial Household, Adjutant General Count Fredericks."
After the outbreak of unrest in the capital, the tsar on the morning of February 26, 1917 ordered General S.S. Khabalov “to stop the unrest, which is unacceptable in difficult times of war.” Having sent General N.I. Ivanov to Petrograd on February 27
to suppress the uprising, Nicholas II left for Tsarskoye Selo on the evening of February 28, but was unable to travel and, having lost contact with Headquarters, on March 1 arrived in Pskov, where the headquarters of the armies of the Northern Front of General N.V. Ruzsky was located, at about 3 o’clock in the afternoon he made a decision about abdication in favor of his son during the regency of Grand Duke Mikhail Alexandrovich, in the evening of the same day he announced to the arriving A.I. Guchkov and V.V. Shulgin about the decision to abdicate for his son. On March 2 at 23:40 he handed over to Guchkov the Manifesto of Abdication, in which he wrote: “ We command our brother to rule over the affairs of the state in complete and inviolable unity with the representatives of the people».
The personal property of the Romanov family was looted.
After death
Glorification among the saints
Decision of the Council of Bishops of the Russian Orthodox Church dated August 20, 2000: “To glorify the Royal Family as passion-bearers in the host of new martyrs and confessors of Russia: Emperor Nicholas II, Empress Alexandra, Tsarevich Alexy, Grand Duchesses Olga, Tatiana, Maria and Anastasia.” .
The act of canonization was accepted Russian society ambiguous: opponents of canonization argue that the canonization of Nicholas II is of a political nature. .
Rehabilitation
Philatelic collection of Nicholas II
Some memoir sources provide evidence that Nicholas II “sinned with postage stamps,” although this hobby was not as strong as photography. On February 21, 1913, at a celebration in the Winter Palace in honor of the anniversary of the House of Romanov, the head of the Main Directorate of Posts and Telegraphs, Actual State Councilor M.P. Sevastyanov, presented Nicholas II with albums in morocco bindings with proof proofs and essays of stamps from the commemorative series published in 300 as a gift. -anniversary of the Romanov dynasty. It was a collection of materials related to the preparation of the series, which was carried out over almost ten years - from 1912. Nicholas II valued this gift very much. It is known that this collection accompanied him among the most valuable family heirlooms in exile, first in Tobolsk, and then in Yekaterinburg, and was with him until his death.
After the death of the royal family, the most valuable part of the collection was plundered, and the remaining half was sold to a certain English army officer stationed in Siberia as part of the Entente troops. He then took her to Riga. Here this part of the collection was acquired by philatelist Georg Jaeger, who put it up for sale at auction in New York in 1926. In 1930, it was again put up for auction in London, and the famous collector of Russian stamps, Goss, became its owner. Obviously, it was Goss who significantly replenished it by buying missing materials at auctions and from private individuals. The 1958 auction catalog described the Goss collection as “a magnificent and unique collection of proofs, prints and essays... from the collection of Nicholas II.”
By order of Nicholas II, the Women's Alekseevskaya Gymnasium, now the Slavic Gymnasium, was founded in the city of Bobruisk
see also
- Family of Nicholas II
- E. Radzinsky. Nicholas II: life and death.
- R. Massey. Nikolai and Alexandra.
Illustrations
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Portrait of Emperor Nicholas II by Ernst Liphart. 1896 |
Portrait of Nicholas II by Ilya Galkin. 1898. |
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The Tsar on a gold five-ruble coin. 1899. |
Diary of Emperor Nicholas II for 1895-1896. |
Nicholas II is a controversial personality, historians speak very negatively about his rule of Russia, most people who know and analyze history are inclined to believe that the last All-Russian Emperor had little interest in politics, did not keep up with the times, slowed down the development of the country, was not a visionary ruler, was able to catch the current in time, did not keep his nose to the wind, and even then, when everything practically went to hell, dissatisfaction was already building not only among the lower classes, but also at the top, they were indignant, even then Nicholas II was unable to do anything correct conclusions. He did not believe that his removal from governing the country was real; in fact, he was doomed to become the last autocrat in Rus'. But Nicholas II was an excellent family man. He should be, for example, a Grand Duke, not an emperor, and not delve into politics. Five children are no joke; raising them requires a lot of attention and effort. Nicholas II loved his wife for many years, missed her in separation, and did not lose his physical and mental attraction to her even after many years of marriage.
I collected many photographs of Nicholas II, his wife Alexandra Feodorovna (nee Princess Victoria Alice Elena Louise Beatrice of Hesse-Darmstadt, daughter of Ludwig IV), their children: daughters Olga, Tatiana, Maria, Anastasia, son Alexei.
This family loved to be photographed, and the shots turned out very beautiful, spiritual, and bright. Look at the attractive faces of the children of the last Russian Emperor. These girls did not know marriage, never kissed their lovers and could not know the joys and sorrows of love. And they died a martyr's death. Although they were not guilty of anything. Many people died in those days. But this family was the most famous, the highest-ranking, and her death still haunts anyone, a black page in the history of Russia, the brutal murder of the royal family. The fate in store for these beauties was this: girls were born in turbulent times. Many people dream of being born in a palace, with a golden spoon in their mouth: to be princesses, princes, kings, queens, kings and queens. But how often was the life of blue-blooded people difficult? They were caught, killed, poisoned, strangled, and very often their own people, close to the royals, destroyed and occupied the vacant throne, alluring with its limitless possibilities.
Alexander II was blown up by a Narodnaya Volya member, Paul II was killed by the conspirators, Peter III died under mysterious circumstances, Ivan VI was also destroyed, the list of these unfortunates can be continued for a very long time. And those who were not killed did not live long by today’s standards; they would either get sick or undermine their health while running the country. And it was not only in Russia that there was such a high mortality rate for royalty; there are countries where it was even more dangerous for reigning individuals to be there. But all the same, everyone was always so zealous for the throne, and they pushed their children there at any cost. I wanted, although not for long, to live well, beautifully, go down in history, take advantage of all the benefits, live in luxury, be able to order slaves, decide the destinies of people and rule the country.
But Nicholas II never longed to be an emperor, but understood that being the ruler of the Russian Empire was his duty, his destiny, especially since he was a fatalist in everything.
Today we will not talk about politics, we will just look at photographs.
In this photo you see Nicholas II and his wife Alexandra Fedorovna, as the couple dressed for a costume ball.
In this photo, Nicholas II is still very young, his mustache is just emerging.
Nicholas II in childhood.
In this photo, Nicholas II with his long-awaited heir Alexei.
Nicholas II with his mother Maria Fedorovna.
In this photo, Nicholas II with his parents, sisters and brothers.
The future wife of Nicholas II, then Princess Victoria Alice Elena Louise Beatrice of Hesse-Darmstadt.
Nicholas II (Nikolai Alexandrovich Romanov), eldest son of Emperor Alexander III and Empress Maria Feodorovna, was born May 18 (May 6, old style) 1868 in Tsarskoe Selo (now the city of Pushkin, Pushkin district of St. Petersburg).
Immediately after his birth, Nikolai was included in the lists of several guards regiments and appointed chief of the 65th Moscow Infantry Regiment. The future tsar spent his childhood within the walls of the Gatchina Palace. Nikolai began regular homework at the age of eight.
In December 1875 he got his first military rank- ensign, in 1880 he was promoted to second lieutenant, four years later he became a lieutenant. In 1884 Nikolai entered active military service, in July 1887 year began regular military service in the Preobrazhensky Regiment and was promoted to staff captain; in 1891 Nikolai received the rank of captain, and a year later - colonel.
To get acquainted with state affairs since May 1889 he began to attend meetings of the State Council and the Committee of Ministers. IN October 1890 year went on a trip to the Far East. In nine months, Nikolai visited Greece, Egypt, India, China, and Japan.
IN April 1894 The engagement of the future emperor to Princess Alice of Darmstadt-Hesse, daughter of the Grand Duke of Hesse, granddaughter of Queen Victoria of England, took place. After converting to Orthodoxy, she took the name Alexandra Feodorovna.
November 2 (October 21, old style) 1894 Alexander III died. A few hours before his death, the dying emperor obliged his son to sign the Manifesto on his accession to the throne.
The coronation of Nicholas II took place May 26 (14 old style) 1896. On the thirtieth (18 old style) May 1896, during the celebration of the coronation of Nicholas II in Moscow, a stampede occurred on Khodynka Field in which more than a thousand people died.
The reign of Nicholas II took place in an atmosphere of increasing revolutionary movement and complications of the foreign policy situation (Russian-Japanese War of 1904-1905; Bloody Sunday; revolution of 1905-1907; World War I; February Revolution of 1917).
Influenced by a strong social movement in favor of political change, October 30 (17 old style) 1905 Nicholas II signed the famous manifesto “On the Improvement of State Order”: the people were granted freedom of speech, press, personality, conscience, meetings, and unions; The State Duma was created as a legislative body.
The turning point in the fate of Nicholas II was 1914- Beginning of the First World War. August 1 (July 19, old style) 1914 Germany declared war on Russia. IN August 1915 year, Nicholas II assumed military command (previously, this position was held by Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich). Afterwards, the tsar spent most of his time at the headquarters of the Supreme Commander-in-Chief in Mogilev.
At the end of February 1917 Unrest began in Petrograd, which grew into mass protests against the government and the dynasty. The February Revolution found Nicholas II at headquarters in Mogilev. Having received news of the uprising in Petrograd, he decided not to make concessions and to restore order in the city by force, but when the scale of the unrest became clear, he abandoned this idea, fearing great bloodshed.
At midnight March 15 (2 old style) 1917 In the saloon carriage of the imperial train, which stood on the tracks at the Pskov railway station, Nicholas II signed an act of abdication, transferring power to his brother Grand Duke Mikhail Alexandrovich, who did not accept the crown.
March 20 (7 old style) 1917 The Provisional Government issued an order for the arrest of the Tsar. On the twenty-second (9th old style) March 1917, Nicholas II and his family were arrested. For the first five months they were under guard in Tsarskoe Selo, in August 1917 they were transported to Tobolsk, where the Romanovs spent eight months.
At first 1918 The Bolsheviks forced Nicholas to remove his colonel's shoulder straps (his last military rank), which he perceived as a grave insult. In May of this year, the royal family was transported to Yekaterinburg, where they were placed in the house of mining engineer Nikolai Ipatiev.
On the night of July 17 (4 old) 1918 and Nicholas II, Tsarina, their five children: daughters - Olga (1895), Tatiana (1897), Maria (1899) and Anastasia (1901), son - Tsarevich, heir to the throne Alexei (1904) and several close associates (11 people in total) , . The shooting took place in a small room on the ground floor of the house; the victims were taken there under the pretext of evacuation. The Tsar himself was shot at point-blank range by the commandant of the Ipatiev House, Yankel Yurovsky. The bodies of the dead were taken outside the city, doused with kerosene, they tried to burn them, and then buried them.
At the beginning of 1991 The first application was submitted to the city prosecutor's office about the discovery of bodies near Yekaterinburg that showed signs of violent death. After many years of research into the remains discovered near Yekaterinburg, a special commission came to the conclusion that they are indeed the remains of nine Nicholas II and his family. In 1997 They were solemnly buried in the Peter and Paul Cathedral in St. Petersburg.
In 2000 Nicholas II and members of his family were canonized by the Russian Orthodox Church.
On October 1, 2008, the Presidium of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation recognized the last Russian Tsar Nicholas II and members of his family as victims of illegal political repression and rehabilitated them.
Interview with Henryk Glembocki - employee of the Department of History of Eastern Europe, Faculty of History, Jagiellonian University
Polonia Christiana: 100 years ago, revolutionary authorities arrested the last Russian Tsar, Nicholas II, and a few months later he and his entire family died at the hands of the Bolsheviks. Many Russians consider him a martyr or even a saint, while others accuse him of leading a huge empire to collapse and handing power to revolutionaries. What is your assessment of the last king and his reign?
Henryk Głębocki: My assessment, naturally, will reflect the Polish experience of relations with the Russian Empire. For a long time, the figure of Nicholas II was viewed through the prism of the revolutionary catastrophe of his country, that is, in a negative light. In this context, entries from the Diary of Tsar Nicholas II, which was published in Poland before World War II, were often quoted to illustrate the widespread opinion about the limited mental abilities of this ruler, his weak character and narrow-mindedness.
It should be noted, however, that at that time keeping a diary was an element of education for the heir to the throne or a member of the reigning house. An example is the diary of Alexander II, the grandfather of Nicholas II, which he kept since childhood. This document clearly shows how he honed his linguistic abilities and learned mental discipline. That's why we see posts about insignificant things: the weather, regular meetings, parades, and so on. Over a quarter of a century of working in Russian and post-Soviet archives, I have seen many diaries of this kind. Nicholas II kept his notes in a similar spirit. However, in 1917, the Tsar felt that tragedy was coming, realizing the consequences of his abdication. On March 15, 1917, he writes in his diary: “At one o’clock in the morning I left Pskov with a heavy feeling of what I had experienced. There is treason, cowardice and deceit all around.”
- What does this prove?
“I think he felt that the abdication, which was soon to lead to the overthrow of the monarchy, would be like removing the axis from the complex mechanism of the empire, the main element of which was the autocracy. In 1917, in just a few months, the entire complex structure of the state literally fell apart.
Nicholas II was definitely not a stupid person, but those around him had many complaints against him. He was considered too sensitive and indecisive; he was accused of being weak-willed, of not being able to make decisions quickly, of being influenced by his environment: his beloved wife and successive ministers.
On the other hand, the last king often harbored prejudices towards different people, and as a result came into conflict with them. For example, he argued with the Minister of Finance Sergei Witte, whom Nicholas II hated, but who was a very capable politician and carried out conservative reforms in Russia, or with Pyotr Stolypin, one of the most prominent Russian reformers. They both wanted to save the monarchy and the empire, but the king could not establish relations with them, believing in the arguments of their political opponents.
An important personality trait of Nicholas II was his religiosity, which was combined with the conviction that Orthodoxy is interconnected with autocracy and guarantees the stability of the empire. He believed in the providential mission of the monarch, who continues the political and cultural tradition of the dynasty, preserves his empire and subjects, and believed in the connection between the king and the people.
- You can also say that the character of Nicholas II had many attractive features.
— The last tsar was undoubtedly a good head of the family, like his father Alexander III. In turn, the same cannot be said about his overly amorous grandfather, Alexander II. Historians sometimes call Nicholas II “the most nepotistic tsar.” He was interested in religion, science, culture, traveled a lot with his family and loved photography, which is why so many beautiful photographs have been preserved the last Romanovs. When communicating with other people, he behaved naturally.
Nicholas II sincerely believed in the idea of a conservative Russian monarchy, which is based on the Orthodox faith and the institution of unlimited autocracy. Therefore, he, like his predecessors, had a dislike for parliamentary institutions (they were considered an “alien Western product”), which the political opposition wanted to appear. Unfortunately, many of the traits that made the Tsar a good person in private life prevented him from effectively managing a huge and complex mechanism Russian Empire. At times it seemed that this task was beyond his strength. He realized this himself, especially at the moment of accession to the throne, and shared his doubts. Indecisiveness and erroneous decisions weakened the authority of the authorities. It all started with the tragedy that happened in Moscow during his coronation: due to the crush and panic on the Khodynka field, many people died. That same day, the young king allowed himself to be persuaded and went to a ball at the French embassy. Many Russians could not forgive him for this.
Context
How Nicholas II angered the Finns
Yle 02/18/2017Heir to the Russian throne Nicholas III
Deutsche Welle 02/06/2017What did Nicholas II give to the Finns?
Helsingin Sanomat 07/25/2016Russian empire, especially before the 1905 revolution and the emergence of constitutional institutions, was a country that limited basic social, civil, national and religious freedoms. Under the last two Romanovs, Alexander III and Nicholas II, Russification became the official political idea, the victim of which was not only the Poles, but also previously loyal peoples - Georgians, Baltic Germans. Discontent increased due to the return to this policy before the First World War. It found a way out in 1917 in slogans about the rights of peoples to whom the Provisional Government granted autonomy. After the Bolshevik coup, they began to take turns declaring independence. During the war, Germany and Austria-Hungary took advantage of the discontent of different peoples: they supported forces that sought to split the empire, including the Poles.
Do you agree with the thesis that Nicholas II was a tsar who simply “did not grow up” to the responsibilities that fell on his shoulders after the premature death of his father?
- Everything is much more complicated. Almost everyone had complaints against Nicholas II. The liberal and revolutionary parties hated him for his commitment to the institution of autocracy. Those who counted on concessions on his part might have looked differently at the “softness” of his character if he had finally decided on something, for example, cooperated with the Duma after its creation. However, Nicholas II was brought up to hate such institutions; he twice dissolved the Duma and limited its rights. He, as representatives of conservative circles, believed that the constitutional form of government and parliament contradicted the mission of the tsar and Russian tradition.
If Nicholas II had agreed to cooperate with the forces that sought to reform Russia in a conservative spirit (their representative was, for example, Stolypin), then perhaps he could have returned stability to the state.
But the ruler constantly changed his opinion depending on the situation or on the advice of his advisers. The main factor that triggered the weakening of the empire, awakened the power of anarchy and destruction hidden in its social system, and intensified the processes that had been emerging for several generations, was the war. It is noteworthy that such visionary politicians as Witte dissuaded the Tsar from participating in this conflict, which could provoke a crisis and revolution, as after the lost war with Japan in 1905.
Character traits, family tragedy (the incurable illness of the heir to the throne, Tsarevich Alexei), political fluctuations - all this was used by the opponents of Nicholas II (including in court circles) and the opposition, which spread the “black legend” about the tsar and his wife. The pretext was the figure of the influential Grigory Rasputin. True and false stories on this topic undermined the authority of the monarchy and had a particularly destructive effect during the First World War, when the Tsar assumed the title of Supreme Commander.
In turn, if we look at Last year In the life of Nicholas II, after his abdication, we will see that he showed admirable qualities, retained his presence of mind, and took care of his family. Largely thanks to this, the last king and his entire family were raised to the altar in Orthodox Church first abroad, and then in Russia. It is interesting that the “ratings” of the most beloved rulers in Russia were and continue to be headed by people who did not shy away from violence and even crimes, but who increased the size of the empire, providing it with a strong position in the world. These are kings like Peter the Great, Catherine II or Nicholas I. And the rulers who tried to reform the country, like Alexander I and especially Alexander III, were subjected to the strongest criticism.
Multimedia
400 years ago the Romanovs ascended the royal throne
InoSMI 03/07/2013Procession in memory of the last Russian Tsar and his family
InoSMI 07/18/2011Nicholas II, who fell victim to communism, is now revered in Russia in two forms. On the one hand, he is an Orthodox martyr (passion-bearer) who died along with his family for the faith. At the same time, an unofficial definition of “king-redeemer” appeared. This definition, bordering on heresy, means that by his sacrifice, which was martyrdom, the tsar atoned for the sin of the people, who allowed themselves to be seduced by the godless ideology of communism.
How did it happen that events occurred so quickly in Russia that completely changed the state? It all started with the fact that on March 15, 1917, Nicholas II abdicated the throne, and on March 21 he was arrested.
— Some historians will say that this is a coincidence of circumstances: heavy snowfalls that paralyzed movement; delays in grain deliveries, which resulted in queues for bread; further - speeches of hungry women whom the Cossacks did not want to disperse. The united opposition, which included liberals and social democrats, was able to raise its head and seize the initiative. The entire revolution was actually limited to events in the capital of the empire. Some of the commanders put pressure on the king, demanding that he transfer the throne to someone more popular in order to continue the war. However, everything developed rapidly. Even now it is difficult to understand how all this could happen so quickly. That is why they often talk about some kind of conspiracies or an organized coup.
Meanwhile, in all the disputes about the causes of the collapse of the Russian monarchy and the events that were launched by the abdication of Nicholas II, long-term phenomena that prepared the ground for the revolution elude our attention. One of them is the gradual decline in the authority of the monarchy and the king, for which he himself was guilty. This phenomenon intensified against the backdrop of the military disaster. To this should be added a whole set of unresolved social and political issues of the early 20th century. Russia was one of the most dynamically developing countries in the world. Rapid economic growth under the semi-feudal system that was maintained in the Tsarist Empire, and which was protected by the Tsar, created tension. It found expression in the slogans of the opposition and revolutionary parties, but was not reflected in public sentiment until the first defeats at the front.
Evil, including social evil, gives rise to new evil. Those who tried to eradicate this evil and human suffering by violent means and usurp the role of the “saviors” of humanity led the country through revolution to even greater suffering. The prophet of the totalitarian threat of the 20th century, the great Russian writer Fyodor Dostoevsky, warned about such a trap when speaking about the danger of human vanity. The Russian revolution “devoured its children”: not only the Bolsheviks, but also representatives of the liberal and social democratic intelligentsia who initially believed in its power. Expressive evidence of this disappointment can be found, in particular, on the pages of the diaries of Zinaida Gippius and Ivan Bunin.
The Russian Revolution released accumulated social tensions. In 1917, many peasants still remembered serfdom, corvée, and the inhumane attitude of their owners. Belief in “black redistribution”, that is, fair redistribution of land, the desire to take away property from landowners made itself felt in 1917. The Bolsheviks cynically used these sentiments and launched populist slogans “land to the peasants”, “rob the loot”, without preparing any reforms.
A separate topic is the reaction to the Russian revolution of a world that was occupied by military massacres. The Germans, after failing to convince the Romanovs to withdraw from the war, financed the Bolsheviks to provoke a revolution and eliminate the eastern front. The British, in turn, fearing protests in their own country, refused in 1917 to save the family of Nicholas II, who simply wanted to go to their relatives in Great Britain.
Richard Pipes writes in his book A Brief History of the Russian Revolution: “When a country's leadership gives itself the right to kill its own citizens not because of their actions, but because it considers their death necessary, it enters into a world where very different people operate. moral laws, crosses the line beyond which genocide begins.” Do you agree with the idea that the death of Nicholas II, his family and all members of the Romanov family was necessary for the Bolsheviks?
— The political meaning of this crime seems clear: they wanted to destroy the representatives ruling dynasty. This is how the murder of Tsarevich Alexei should be understood. In the spring and summer of 1918, the Bolsheviks killed all the Romanovs who fell into their hands. At the same time, they did not report these crimes, fearing not so much that they would be condemned in the world, but rather their ally, the head of the German monarchy.
The death of Nicholas II and his family, as well as the “Red Terror” that began in August 1918, more clearly than the Bolshevik coup itself, symbolize the birth of a totalitarian regime that did not take into account the lives of individuals or social groups. The Great Terror is illustrated by the national operations of the NKVD, including the “Polish operation” of 1937-38, they show that the Bolsheviks always found a reason to exterminate inconvenient groups of the population. Romanov's death was not only an omen of mass terror, but also the most striking symbol of what the then nascent Bolshevik regime actually was.
- Thank you for the conversation.
InoSMI materials contain assessments exclusively foreign media and do not reflect the position of the editorial board of InoSMI.
