A) Transitivity and intransitivity of verbs.
A) Transitive verbs– denote an action directly and necessarily aimed at some object, for example: build whom? What? Home, love - Who? What? Mother, the action is directed towards the object. Intransitive verbs - name an action not directed at an object, for example: having fun, talking. Entire lexical-semantic groups of verbs are transitive or intransitive, such as verbs of creation: erect, build, etc., destruction - burn, break, destroy, etc., speaking - speak, inform, etc., sensual perceptions - hear, see, feel, are usually transitive. Intransitive verbs include verbs of movement, for example: run, jump, etc., positions in space - stand, lie; sounds - rattle, buzz, ring; states – dozing, being sick; changes in condition - losing weight, turning white. It should be remembered that polysemous verbs can be transitive in some meanings and intransitive in others. (The child is reading (what?) a book. The child reads well.)
Grammatical differences.
Transitive verbs combine (control) with nouns in the Accusative case without a preposition, for example: solve (who? What?) a problem. Instead of the accusative case, the direct object in two cases is expressed by the genitive case form. 1. If the action does not cover the entire subject, but only part of it. For example: drink (who? what?) water, the genitive form, because the ending is ы, the accusative is u, drink water.
2. If the verb has a negation. For example: Didn’t buy (what?) bread, genitive case of the noun, bought (who? What?) bread, replace the negation with a statement and it will be the Accusative case.
The foundations of the doctrine of pledge were laid in the 18th-19th centuries, by the works of Lomonosov, Vostokov and others. Among modern researchers, researchers I.P. Muchnik, A.I. Moiseev, L.L. Bulavin, and others have contributed to the study of collateral.
S (subject) D (action) O (object)
In university practice, there has traditionally been an understanding of voice that is entirely based on the transitivity and intransitivity of verbs. Only transitive verbs and the intransitive verbs formed from them with the postfix -sya have the category of voice; all other intransitive verbs are outside the voice. According to one of the classifications, there are: active, passive, and intermediate voices.
Active voice - denotes an active action that is performed by the subject, and which passes to the object.
The subject performs an action and moves to the object. These verbs are always non-reflexive and transitive. For example: the plane delivers mail, mom washed the frame.
Passive voice - denotes a passive action that is performed by the subject in the form of the Instrumental case and which is directed at the object.
The plane delivers mail - MAIL DELIVERED BY AIRPLANE (Tv.p), reflexive, intransitive, but formed from a transitive verb.
Medium return voice - denotes the action of the subject, which is directed “at himself”, as if returning to himself. For example: The child (subject) dressed (action) very slowly. The action returns to itself – subject = object.
The verbs of this voice are divided into the following groups: 1. Verbs with a general reflexive meaning: denote the closed action in the subject with the attributive pronoun CAM, for example: rise, be surprised, etc. He went up the stairs (not someone else, but he went up himself). 2. Verbs with a proper reflexive meaning denote the return of an action to the actor himself. (Postfix -sya, close in meaning to the meaning of having oneself) Cover yourself well - cover yourself well. (The verb hide, return nepereh, the image from the verb pereh). Wash, bathe, get dressed. 3 Verbs with an indirect reflexive meaning show that the action is performed by the subject in his own interests (postfix -sya = for himself, to fit, to build for himself). 4. Verbs with a reciprocal meaning show that the action is performed by two or more persons, each of whom acts as both a subject and an object (postfix – xia = each other, hug, kiss, swear). 5. Verbs with an active-objectless meaning, the subject is characterized by the fact that it has a constant ability to actively manifest itself in the process of the named action. The object is usually not named, for example: a dog bites, a bee stings, a cow butts. 6. Verbs with a passive-qualitative meaning denote the ability of a passive subject. Be subject to the named action. Action characterizes an object as its constant qualitative sign. For example: Wax melts.
She blushed (the value of the average return deposit). The cheeks are flushed (passive voice, frost flushes the cheeks) with frost.
See the Morphology manual for the definition algorithm!
Extra-vocal verbs
1. Non-reflexive intransitive verbs. For example: walk.
2. Verbs formed with the help of a postfix - xia from intransitive verbs, the postfix xia only strengthens the intransitivity, for example - cry-cry, look-look.
3. Verbs formed in a prefix-postfix way: cry, disperse, etc.
4. Verbs not used without – sya: admire, grin, smile. Say hello, vouch.
5. Reflexive verbs that differ in meaning from the corresponding non-reflexive verbs, for example: torture and try, spread (wings) and deal (with someone).
Target lectures – give the concept of verb voice; present existing theories of collateral; characterize the binary and three-term theories of collateral.
2. Binary theory of collateral.
3. Lexico-grammatical category of transitivity/intransitivity.
4. Three-part theory of collateral.
The category of voice has been and remains to this day the subject of close attention of many linguists. Different grammarians have understood and still understand differently the scope and grammatical content of the category of voice; Some saw in the pledge only a reflection of the relationship of the action to the object, others included in the circle of pledge meanings, in addition to object relations, and various relations of the action to the subject, while others sought to limit the concept of pledge to the expression of the relationship to the subject.
The traditional doctrine of pledges, leading from the six pledges of M.V. Lomonosov, remains until early XIX V. and ends with the works of F.I. Buslaev, from whom this theory receives the most profound development.
The category of voice by linguists of this period is understood as a category that expresses the relationship of an action to an object. In this regard, the concepts of voice and transitivity-intransitivity were identified. In parallel with transitivity-intransitivity, another principle was used as the basis for distinguishing voice - the distinction between verbs with the affix -sya and verbs without this affix. The confusion of these two principles did not make it possible to construct a consistent theory of collateral.
The category of pledge received a fundamentally different interpretation in the works of K.S. Aksakov and especially F.F. Fortunatova. F.F. Fortunatov in his article “On the Voices of the Russian Verb” talks about voices as verbal forms that express the relationship of the action to the subject. Instead of the lexico-syntactic principle of F.F. Fortunatov based the classification of voices on the grammatical correlation of forms. The formal sign of a voice is the affix -sya, therefore two voices are distinguished (revocable and non-revocable). F.F. Fortunatov refuses to identify voice and transitivity-intransitivity, but points out the connection of voice meanings with the meanings of transitivity-intransitivity.
Other researchers (A.A. Potebnya, A.A. Shakhmatov) considered pledge as a category expressing subject-object relations. A.A. Shakhmatov based his doctrine of voice on the sign of transitivity-intransitivity and identified three voices - active, passive and reflexive. The scientist’s works provide a subtle analysis of the main meanings of the -sya affix in reflexive verbs. A.V. Isachenko distinguishes two voices: active and passive. V.V. Vinogradov identifies three collateral meanings of verbs: active, passive, neuter.
These two voice theories - binary and three-term - are most widespread in Russian grammar.
2. Binary collateral theory
The category of pledge consists of two opposed grammatical forms and their meanings, which actualize subject-object connections of action in speech. The subject is understood as any carrier of action, the object is any inert object (including the one being created) that is directly covered by the action of the subject. The actualization of subject-object connections of an action is understood as the identification in a given statement of an object to which the action is attributed when the subject/object is actualized: The professor gave a lecture - The lecture was given by the professor. The actualization of the subject or object itself is motivated by certain textual connections of a given sentence, the situation, as well as the communicative attitude of the utterance and affects the expression of the peculiarities of the course of the action.
The active voice actualizes the subject of the action in the statement, and the action can be objective or non-objective. The subject of the action in the active voice is expressed by the nominative case, indirect cases, personal forms of the verb, or can be represented as eliminated: he reads, it is not read to him, they say that he has arrived; freezing.
The passive voice, on the contrary, actualizes in the statement an object to which the arbitrary ultimate-effective action of the subject is attributed, which makes the object the bearer not of the action, but of the state or result that is caused by the action of the subject. The subject of an action in the passive voice is expressed by the personal voice form of the verb with the support of the context and lexical meaning of the verb and is of an indefinite nature, which can optionally be specified by the instrumental case and other forms. The actualized object is expressed, as a rule, in the nominative case: A high-rise building is being built on our street.
Thus, correlative sentences with the passive voice and the active voice denote the same objective situation, consisting of the subject, his action and the object to which the action of the subject is directed, but interpret it from opposite points of view - from the point of view of the bearer of the objective action (active voice) or an object as a carrier of an influencing action (passive voice).
According to this theory, all verbs have a voice.
3. Lexico-grammatical category of transitivity/intransitivity
Transitive and intransitive verbs differ in meaning. The basis of this distinction is the attitude towards the object of the action expressed by the verb.
Transitive verbs include verbs with the meaning of an action directed at an object, changing or producing this object - the object of the action: read a book, widen a sleeve, sew a suit.
Intransitive verbs include verbs that denote movement and position in space, physical and moral state, for example: fly, get sick, stand, suffer.
The lexical meaning of transitive and intransitive verbs is associated with their syntactic difference: transitive verbs are combined with the designation of an object in the accusative case without a preposition, and intransitive verbs require an object only in indirect cases without a preposition or with prepositions; cf.: to love (who? what?) is a transitive verb, to help (whom? what?) is an intransitive verb.
With transitive verbs, the object of the action can be expressed in the genitive case in two cases:
– to designate part of an object: drink water, buy bread;
– if there is a negation of the verb: did not read newspapers, did not receive wages, has no right.
Usually transitive and intransitive verbs do not have their own special morphological characteristics. However, some types of word formation of verbs are indicators of the transitivity and intransitivity of the verb. Thus, all verbs with the affix -sya (cf.: convince - make sure), as well as denominal verbs with the suffix -e- and -nicha-(-icha-) are classified as intransitive: become weak, become bald, tinker, greedy, picky, etc. .P. Transitive verbs include verbs formed from adjectives with the suffix -i-: blacken, green, etc. In some cases, attaching prefixes to intransitive unprefixed verbs turns them into transitive ones; cf.: harm (who? what?), neutralize (who? what?). Depending on the lexical meaning, the same verb can act as transitive and intransitive: The editor corrects the manuscript. – The world is ruled by man himself. At intransitive verbs the accusative case is possible without a preposition, but exclusively with the meaning of space or time: The troops march day and night.
4. Three-term theory of collateral
According to the theory of three voices, the grammatical category of voice is a verbal category that expresses the relationship of an action to the subject (producer of the action) and the object of the action (the object on which the action is performed). For example: 1) The general abruptly stopped the car near his tent. The verb stopped has a voice form that expresses the relationship of the action (stopped) to the subject (general) and the object of the action (car), covered by the action in full; 2) ...A small cart, drawn by three exhausted horses, stopped in front of the porch. The voice form of the verb stopped indicates an action that is confined to the subject itself (the cart) and does not transfer to the object. The difference between the verb forms stopped and stopped in the given sentences is a voice difference.
Grammatical means of expressing voice meanings can be morphological and syntactic. By morphological means when forming voices, the affix -sya is used, attached to the verb: to please - to rejoice. By syntactic means expressions of pledge values are:
– syntactic difference in the expression of the subject and object of the action (cf.: Waves erode the shore. - The shore is eroded by the waves);
– presence of an action object and complete absence him (cf.: Rain increases the harvest. - The rain begins);
– difference in forms and meanings of nouns controlled by a verb (cf.: An agreement is concluded by a foreman. - An agreement is concluded with a foreman).
The main voices of the three-term theory are the active, neuter reflexive and passive voices.
Transitive verbs have active voice, denoting an action performed by the subject and actively directed at the object. The active voice has a syntactic characteristic: the subject of the action is the subject, and the object is the object in the accusative case without a preposition: Peace will win the war.
The passive voice is similar in meaning to the active voice, but has its own morphological and syntactic characteristics. The passive voice is expressed by attaching the affix -sya to active voice verbs (cf.: Workers are building houses. - Houses are being built by workers).
Comparison of the construction The plant carries out the plan (active construction) and The plan is fulfilled by the plant (passive construction) shows that in the active construction (with a transitive verb) the subject of the action is expressed by the subject, and the object is expressed by the object in the accusative case, and in the passive (with a reflexive verb) by the subject becomes an object, and the former subject turns out to be an object in the instrumental case. Thus, the passive voice represents the action as passively directed from the object to the subject.
The most important grammatical indicator of the passive voice is the instrumental case of the noun with the meaning of the doer, the real subject of the action. The absence of such an instrumental case brings the passive meaning of the verb closer to the neuter reflexive, especially when the subject is the name of a person (cf.: Skiers go on a hike; Letters are sent by mail; Parcels are sent by a forwarder).
Verbs formed from transitive verbs (active voice) by means of the affix -sya have mid-reflexive voice. They express the action of the subject, which does not transfer to a direct object, but, as it were, returns to the subject itself, concentrated in it; cf.: return the book and return (by yourself), focus attention and concentrate (by yourself).
According to this voice theory, not all verbs have a voice meaning.
So, they remain without bail the following verbs:
– irrevocable intransitives (sleep, blush);
– verbs that are not used without –sya (to hope);
– reflexive verbs formed from intransitive verbs (to cry);
– verbs that have an impersonal meaning.
Depending on the lexical meaning of the bases and the nature of the syntactic connections, verbs of the mid-reflexive voice can express shades of meaning that differently characterize the relationship between the subject and the object of the action (see the lecture material on the lexical-grammatical category “reflexivity/non-reflexivity”).
Literature
1. Vinogradov V.V. Russian language. (Grammatical doctrine of words). – M., 1986.
2. Korolev E.I. About the voices of the Russian verb // Thoughts about the modern Russian language. – M., 1969.
3. Modern Russian language: Theory. Analysis of linguistic units: In 2 hours – Part 2: Morphology. Syntax / Ed. E.I. Dibrova. – M., 2002.
4. Modern Russian language / Ed. P.A. Lekanta. – M., 2000.
5. Shansky N.M., Tikhonov A.N. Modern Russian language: At 3 o'clock. – Part 2: Word formation. Morphology - M., 1987.
1. What verbs are called transitive?
2. What verbs are called intransitive?
3. What voice meanings can a verb express according to the binary theory of voice?
4. What voice meanings can a verb express according to the three-member theory of voice?
5. Which groups of verbs do not have a voice meaning according to the three-member theory of voice?
Pledge is a constant lexical-grammatical category of a verb, which expresses the relationship between the action called the verb, the subject and the object of this action ( expressed by the subject and additions).
Grammatical means of expressing voice meanings can be morphological and syntactic.
By morphological means in the formation of collateral the following are used:
postfix -xia, attached to a verb: to please - to rejoice;
suffixes of active and passive participles ( seer - seen And visible - seen).
By syntactic means expressions of pledge values are:
syntactic difference in the expression of the subject and object of an action ( Waves wash away the shore.- The shore is washed away by the waves);
the presence of an object of action or its complete absence ( Rain increases harvest. — It's starting to rain.);
difference in forms and meanings of verb-controlled nouns ( The contract is concluded by the boss. — The contract is concluded with the boss).
Types of collateral: active, reflexive and passive.
Active voice have transitive verbs, denoting an action performed by the subject and actively aimed at the object. The active voice has a syntactic characteristic: the subject of the action is the subject, and the object is the object in the accusative case without a preposition: Beauty will save the world.
Average refundable deposit have verbs formed from transitive verbs (active voice) using a postfix -xia. They express the action of the subject, which does not transfer to a direct object, but, as it were, returns to the subject itself, concentrated in it. For example: return log And come back(himself) concentrate attention And to focus on(to himself).
Depending on the lexical meaning of the stems and the nature of syntactic connections verbs of the middle reflexive voice can express shades of meaning that differently characterize the relationship between the subject and the object of the action.
Self-reflexive verbs express an action whose subject and object coincide, i.e. are the same person: Zhenya got dressed quickly. Postfix -xia in these verbs it means "oneself".
Reflexive verbs denote the action of several persons directed at each other, i.e. joint action of several subjects. Postfix -xia such verbs have the meaning “each other”: kiss, hug, make up, quarrel, meet.
Reflexive verbs express internal state subject, closed in the subject itself, or a change in the state, position, movement of the subject: worry, be surprised, be frightened, to be upset, to move.
Indirect reflexive verbs denote an action performed by a subject in his own interests, for himself: build, stock up, pack, tidy up.
Objectless reflexive verbs denote an action outside of relation to an object, closed in the subject as its constant property: Nettle stings, dogs bite, cats scratch.
Passive voice- this is a form of a verb showing that the person or object acting as the subject in a sentence does not perform an action (are not its subject), but experience someone else’s action (are its object). The passive voice is similar in meaning to the active voice, but has its own morphological and syntactic characteristics.
Passive voice is expressed by adding a postfix to active voice verbs. -xia (Workers are building houses. — Houses are built by workers). In addition, the meaning of the passive voice can be expressed by forms of passive participles - full and short.
For example: Mother is loved(darling).Topic studied(studied).
Design comparison - Factory fulfills plan(actual construction) and The plan is executed by the factory(passive construction) shows that in the active construction the subject of the action is expressed by the subject, and the object by the object in the accusative case, and in the passive the object becomes the subject, and the former subject turns out to be the object in the instrumental case.
Thus, the passive voice represents the action as passively directed from the object to the subject. The most important grammatical indicator of the passive voice is instrumental case a noun with the meaning of a real subject of action. The absence of the instrumental case brings the passive meaning of the verb closer to the neuter reflexive, especially when the subject is the name of a person ( Skiers go hiking; Letters are sent by mail; Parcels are sent by a forwarder).
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The understanding of the category of voice in the Russian language is connected with transitivity/intransitivity and reflexivity of verbs. The category of voice, along with the category of aspect, permeates the entire verbal system of the Russian language.
PR: Workers(S) are building(D) a building(Ob)
The building(Ob) is being built(D) by workers(S).
The girl(S) is reading(D) a book(Ob).
The book(Ob) is being read(D) by a girl(S).
Traditionally, two points of view are considered:
1) about the three-collateral system (Shansky, Tikhonov, Chesnokova);
2) about the two-collateral system (Miloslavsky, Lekant).
Three-collateral system:
There are three forms of collateral: active, passive and mid-reflexive voice. There is also a whole group of verbs that are out of voice.
Valid (active) voice means that the subject (which is the subject) performs an action that directly transfers to the object (which is the object).
Therefore, the transitivity-intransitivity of the verb turns out to be important, i.e. presence/absence of an object (direct object).
ETC: Students(S) perform(D) tasks(ob).
Pilots(S) perform(D) flights(Ob).
The driver (S) drives (D) the car (Ob).
Passive (passive) voice means that the object (which is the subject) is subject to action by the subject (which is the object).
The forms of the passive voice are intransitive, but they are formed from transitive verbs.
ETC: The task(Ob) is performed(D) by students(S).
Flights (Ob) are performed (D) by pilots (S).
The car (Ob) is driven (D) by a driver (S).
The meaning of the passive voice can be expressed in two ways:
a) Personal forms of verbs with the postfix –sya.
b) Forms of passive participles.
ETC: Then somewhere I am invited directly by Mukhin. (N. Pirogov)
The lecture is given by the professor.
The portrait was painted by the artist.
Almost half of the houses were abandoned by their owners. (Czech.)
Medium-refundable (refundable-average, refundable) deposit means that the action of the subject is focused on the subject itself.
ETC: The child undressed quickly.
The tree is transplanted into the ground.
You were upset for nothing.
Medium reflexive verbs are distributed into several lexical-semantic groups:
1. With a self-return value. (SELF) The subject and object of the action coincide (the action returns to itself). These are verbs with the meaning of physical action:
ETC: wash, wash, dress, undress, put on shoes, comb your hair, shave, bleach, wrap up, put on makeup.
This also includes verbs with the meaning of state:
ETC: restrain, tune in, humiliate.
2. Verbs of reciprocal meaning express action directed at each other (joint action of several subjects):
ETC: kiss, hug, meet, see each other, make up, quarrel.
3. Verbs of general reflexive meaning name an action closed in the sphere of the subject as its state (ITSELF):
ETC: angry, worried, surprised, happy, languishing, frightened, worried, happy, sad, embarrassed.
4. Verbs of indirect reflexive meaning name an action performed by the subject in his own interests (FOR HIMSELF):
ETC: tidy up, pack up, line up, stock up, settle down.
ETC: Khor settled down and saved some money (Turg.).
Little by little and slowly - you look and have furnished yourself (S.-Shch.).
5. Verbs of active-objectless meaning name action as a constant and characteristic property of the subject, its distinctive feature:
ETC: Nettle stings.
The cow is butting.
The dog bites.
Cats scratch.
6. Verbs of characterizing-qualitative meaning name action as a characteristic tendency or ability of a subject to be subjected to any influence:
ETC: Bad threads break.
The car starts well.
Porcelain breaks easily.
Coffee doesn't dissolve well.
7. Collateral reflexive verbs name an action as contact with an object, and the object, by its presence, seems to stimulate, generate this action itself, and make it possible.
ETC: Hold on to the railing.
Grasp the door handle.
Cling to the hand.
Hit the corner.
It must be remembered that in some contexts, verbs with the postfix -sya reveal a connotation of intensity or persistence in the manifestation of action:
ETC: knock, ring, beat.
In other cases, the postfix – xia may introduce a shade of uncertainty, weakness in identifying a sign:
ETC: turn white, turn red, turn grey.
Algorithm for determining collateral using a three-collateral system:
1. Does the verb have a postfix -sya? Do not use without it - without bail
2. Is the verb formed 2. Is the verb transitive (context)?
From a transitive verb?
Yes No Yes No
3. Is there a verb with a verb?
verb noun in TV out of bail valid. out of bail
pad. with the value of the pledge
subject of action?
Verb Verb
suffer. average return.
Bail Bond
ETC: The land is cultivated by peasants. (suffering)
Peasants cultivate the land. (valid)
The land is cultivated regularly. (average return)
We are fighting for survival. (out of bail)
Schoolchildren correspond. (average return)
Two-collateral system:
According to this approach, there are no non-voice verbs. All verbs are either active or passive voice. Proponents of the two-voice system distinguish between active and passive voices. It is believed that all verbs have a voice meaning.
All verbs that combine with a nominative object are verbs passive voice.
All verbs that either do not combine with the nominative case at all, or the nominative case has the meaning of the subject, are verbs active voice.
ETC: The chess players postponed the game. (act.)
The game was postponed by the chess players. (suffering)
The land is cultivated by peasants. (suffering)
The active voice can also include reflexive verbs with the postfix –sya. It is possible to distinguish the form of the passive voice from the reflexive verb only in context.
ETC: Workers are building a house. (valid)
The house is being built by workers. (suffering)
Ivan has been under construction for a year now. (valid)
But sometimes it is difficult to distinguish the collateral in the context.
ETC: The bridge is being raised(by whom? Or is it his property?) A broader context is needed.
Algorithm for determining collateral using a two-collateral system:
1. Does the verb have a postfix -sya?
2. Is the active verb combined in the sentence?
with Named. pad. object? collateral
(is there an addition to the TV pad?
with the meaning of the subject?)
Verb strad. Active verb
collateral collateral
ETC: scattered - scattered, won - was defeated.
Such verbs are two-voice. Two-voice verbs include only transitive verbs, and not all of them.
Verbs of the second type have only active voice forms:
ETC: lies, stands.
These are monosyllable verbs, verbs aktiva tantum. According to scientists (Maslov, Bondarko...), there are no such verbs that have only passive voice forms in the Russian language.
Correlative voice forms differ only grammatically (by voice meaning); their lexical meaning is the same. Therefore, voice is considered as a category of verbal inflection. (Although N.A. Yanko-Trinitskaya and P.S. Kuznetsov believe that verbs of different voices are different lexemes, therefore, the category of voice can be considered as a classification verb category.)
The relationship between an action and an object can be expressed in only two ways: if the object itself performs the action or if the action is performed on it. In linguistics there is a branch of grammar that studies this topic, and it’s called “Active and Passive Voice.” And since this section cannot be considered in English without a similar one in Russian, we will analyze them one by one.
What it is
As already mentioned, the active and passive voice is a verbal category that reflects the relationship between the action, the subject (produces the force) and the object (to which the force is directed). To show which type is used in a sentence to express a thought, it is necessary to know certain constructions characteristic of each of them, which are formed by means of morphology and syntax. The passive voice is expressed by the so-called “passive” form of the verb, and the active voice is expressed by the “active” form. In English, this section sounds like “Passive voice” and “Active voice”, respectively. And as in Russian, the structure of the sentence from a syntactic point of view undergoes changes characteristic of each voice.
Active voice
We constantly use verbs in this form both in writing and in colloquial speech. They denote actions that come directly from the object, and in sentences they take changes in persons, numbers and tenses, i.e. These are all transitive verbs. For example, “I am reading a book”, “he was reading a book”, “we will read a book”, etc. More complex than in Russian, this happens in English, since it has at least 9 tense forms of the verb: three present (Present Simple, Continuous and Perfect), three past (Past) and three future (Future). The use of each of them depends on the purpose of the utterance. Thus, simple tense (Simple) is used to express action in general, i.e. reporting it as a fact, without additional information. For example, “I read a book” (“I am reading a book”). Continuous tells about a process taking place in any time: “Ann is reading a book at this moment” (“Anna is now reading a book”), and Perfect tense denotes those actions that ended at a certain moment : “I have read a book already” (“I have already read the book”).
Passive voice
In the Russian language, not all verbs can be used to form this category. This happens because their classification is extensive, and not each of them can be subject to collateral correlation, i.e. take both of its forms. Thus, the passive voice in the Russian language is closely related to the concept of transitivity (the ability to form a connection with an object without a preposition or with it) and reflexivity (attaching the postfix “-sya”) of verbs. For example, dressing a child (transitive), approaching the table (intransitive); listen - obey (returnable), breathe - irrevocable.
Thus, only transitive verbs can form the passive voice in Russian by adding the postfix “-sya” to their actual form. For example: “The house is designed by architects,” “Criminals are detained by police.”
Note
The meaning of sentences with verbs in this voice can also be conveyed using passive participles, both full and short. For example: “The house was designed (designed) by architects” or “Criminals detained (detained) by police.” A separate topic in the Russian language is occupied by the so-called. average return deposit. Only transitive verbs can take its form by adding the postfix “-sya”. In essence, this is the same passive voice, only the subject and object of the action in it is the same person, that is, the action is directed “at oneself.” For example, “Girl getting dressed for a walk”, “Come home for lunch”, “Concentrate on studying”, etc.
In English
It is better to present what the construction of verbs in Active voice (active voice) and Passive voice (passive voice) in English looks like in a table: this will help to simultaneously compare the methods of their formation and understand the general scheme. Thus, in positive sentences, it represents the form of the verb “To be” in the tense required for the statement + a semantic verb with the ending “-ed” or in the third form (V3, Participle II). Passive voice is easy to recognize in English text using this pattern as it is unique, simple and not used in any other topics. To obtain a question, the first word from the entire verb form is moved to the beginning of the sentence, and for negation, the particle “not” is added after it. To better understand this, it is better to change one sentence in all tenses.
Analysis of the topic using an example
Past Simple: Some letters were written by James at the school. (Several letters written by James at school). / Were some letters written…? / Some letters were not written…
Future Simple: Some letters will be written by James at the school. / Will some letters be written…? / Some letters will not be written…
Pr.Cont.: Some letters are being written by James at the school at the moment. this moment). / Are some letters being written…? / Some letters are not being written…
Past Cont.: Some letters were being written by James at the school for hour. / Were some letters being written…? / Some letters were not being written…
FutureCont.: does not exist, you must use the Future Simple.
Pr.Perf.: Some letters have been written by James at the school towards lunchtime. / Have some letters been written…? / Some letters have not been written…
Past Perf.: Some letters had been written by James at the school towards lunchtime. / Had some letters been written…? / Some letters had not been written…
Future Perf.: Some letters would be written by James at the school tomorrow towards lunchtime. / Would some letters be written…? / Some letters would not be written…
conclusions
Thus, the topic of voice correlation of verbs in Russian and English languages based on the same concepts and general rules applications, however, differs sharply in the patterns of temporary forms. This happens primarily because the grammar of these two languages is practically not similar, which means that word formation cannot be compared. But still, it is absolutely impossible for Russian-speaking students to master this topic in English without knowing it in their native speech, since the minimum for studying it is a general understanding.
