Mental mechanisms is a holistic set of mental states and processes that realize movement towards a certain result in accordance with a standard or frequently occurring sequence.
““Psychological mechanisms” is a concept that merges a figurative-metaphorical description (the leading principle from the generic “mechanism”) and the scientific idea of intrapsychic processes that ensure the effectiveness - in our case - of psychological influence" - this is how E. L describes psychological mechanisms Dotsenko
Depending on the psychological mechanisms involved and the nature of intrapersonal processes, several types of manipulations are distinguished.
Model of Perceptual-Based Manipulation
♦ Involvement – perception through an image.
♦ Targets – desires, interests of the addressee.
♦ Background – intermodal associations, correspondence of the image to the motive intended as the target of influence.
♦ Inducement – direct actualization of motive, seduction, provocation.
The simplest techniques are based on the presentation of such stimuli that actualize the need necessary for the manipulator. The vast majority of, for example, sexual tricks are based on this principle: exposing areas of the body, emphasizing erotically attractive forms, using movements and gestures associated with sexual games, etc.
Techniques that are similar in nature are based on direct control of the recipient’s imagination. We find an instructive example from A.S. Pushkin in “The Tale of Tsar Saltan.” This is the story of how Prince Guidon got the Tsar-Father to visit his city on the island of Buyan. The manipulation lies in the fact that Guidon never invited Saltan to his place, each time limiting himself to only conveying greetings, but in the end he waited for the (uninvited!) visit. The calculation was that after the stories of the surprised merchants about what they saw on Buyan Island, the king himself would express a desire to pay a visit to his new neighbor. This is why Guidon tried to surprise the merchants - the first manipulative technique was successfully tested on them several times. Its principle is simple: most people find it difficult to resist telling about amazing things - and surprising the listener with it. The second technique - inducing Saltan's desire to visit Guidon - is based mainly on curiosity, to which, undoubtedly, tsars are also subject.
Model of Conventional-Oriented Manipulation
♦ Involvement – with the help of special schematisms: rules, norms, scenarios.
♦ Targets are ready-made patterns of behavior.
♦ Background – socially given and individually learned life programs, behavioral scenarios accepted by the addressee, personally acquired ideas about what needs to be done, etc.
♦ Incentives – distribution of roles, appropriate scenarios, reminders (about agreements, about communication, about what should be done, about prohibitions, about what is expected, etc.).
Wherever social norms and traditions are strong, there is a suitable victim for the manipulator. The very concept of culture includes a system of prohibitions and taboos that every educated person must take into account. Those who take this too literally and follow the rules too diligently inevitably end up among the conventional robots. We offer several humorous illustrations to this thesis. Most often they make fun of adherence to the traditions of the British.
The ship landed on an uninhabited island. When landing on the shore, the team found there an Englishman who had long ago escaped from a shipwreck, as well as three houses that he had built.
– Did you really build all this yourself? Incredible! But why do you, alone, need three houses? – the travelers were perplexed.
– This first one is my home (it’s also my fortress); the second is the club I go to; the third is a club that I don’t go to.
Another episode from the life of a conventional robot, again, it seems, an Englishman.
Late at night, the butler dared to disturb the peace of his master in order to report:
– Sir, I’m sorry... An unknown person entered your wife’s bedroom through the window...
- John, get my gun and hunting suit. I'm guessing a plaid jacket would be appropriate for the occasion?
With all the rigidity of the restrictive framework of traditions, one has to admit how necessary they are as an attribute of a cultured person. Antoine de Saint-Exupéry put it very precisely on this score: “Rules of behavior sometimes resemble ritual rites: they seem meaningless, but they educate people.” The fact that they are used by manipulators is an inevitable socio-psychological cost.
A man crawls through a deserted, sultry desert, barely audibly repeating:
- Drink, drink, drink...
Another man crawls towards him and whispers:
- Tie, tie, tie...
The first traveler even stopped moaning and became indignant:
- What the hell kind of tie is it when you're dying of thirst?
– Three miles from here I found a restaurant where there is water, juices, and cognac. But they won't let you in without a tie.
Such strict adherents of traditions seem to be asking themselves for someone to be found for the role of a manipulative leader and begin to lead them.
The portrait of a conventional robot, a law-abiding Soviet citizen, was painted by Mikhail Zhvanetsky in his famous humoresque.
Hello?.. Is this the police?.. Tell me, you didn’t call me?.. I returned from a business trip, and the neighbors say someone came with a summons - they called me somewhere... Chizhikov Igor Semenovich, Lesnaya, 5, apartment 18 ... I don’t know what business... No, I’m not in the store... No, not the blond... 33... I’m just in case. What if you... Didn’t call... Maybe a robbery?.. I don’t... But you never know... Maybe someone slandered?.. Maybe you know?.. No, nothing yet. So you didn't call?.. Sorry for disturbing you.
Hello?.. Is this the military registration and enlistment office?..
…
Hello?.. Is this court?.. Hello?..
…
Is this a dispensary?..
…
Hello! Is this the police?.. This is Chizhikov from the dispensary. They told me to contact you. Not blond... Face is clean. One hundred sixty-seven, forty, thirty-three, blue... I’ll still come in... Well, please, let’s finish it... Can we?.. Thank you. I'm running...
Model of Operation-Oriented Manipulation
♦ Involvement - through the use of such automatisms as the power of habits, inertia, skills, logic of actions.
♦ Targets – habitual ways of behavior and activity.
♦ Background – inertia, the desire to complete the gestalt.
♦ Inducement – pushing the recipient to turn on the corresponding automaticity.
Examples of manipulations of this type are Krylov’s previously mentioned fable “The Crow and the Fox” and fishing.
Model of inference-oriented manipulation
♦ Involvement – cognitive scheme, internal logic of the situation, standard inference.
♦ Targets – patterns of cognitive processes, cognitive attitudes.
♦ Background – removal of cognitive dissonance.
♦ Inducement – hint, “puzzle”, imitation of attempts to solve a problem.
This type of manipulation is carried out by the most successful investigators in cases where there is confidence that the suspect has actually committed a crime, but there is not enough evidence to charge him. The investigator tells the criminal some information, prompting him to take action to destroy evidence, and catches him in this. This is exactly what detective Columbo did in the famous series.
Model of manipulation focused on personality structures
♦ Involvement – action, decision making.
♦ Targets – motivational structures.
♦ Background – accepting responsibility for a choice made through doubt.
♦ Inducement – actualization of intrapersonal conflict, imitation of the decision-making process.
The manipulation that we call “I want to consult with you” is very indicative in this regard. The manipulator, receiving advice, thereby places responsibility for the consequences on the one who gave this advice. In the corresponding chapters we will show how this is used by manipulators in service and business relations, in the relationship between parents and children.
Model of manipulation focused on spiritual exploitation
♦ Engagement – a shared search for meaning.
♦ Targets – relationships between motives, meanings.
♦ Background – the addressee’s usual ways of coping with semantic disorientation and filling the semantic vacuum.
♦ Inducement – actualization of existing meanings and values, pushing for semantic destabilization and revaluation of values, imitation of the process of searching for meaning.
The famous phrase of Vasisualiy Lokhankin “Or maybe there is a homespun truth in this?” is directly related to this type of manipulation.
This type also includes cases of recruitment into their ranks, which are carried out by all kinds of religious sects. These are deliberately manipulative organizations, because they make a person believe in his own imperfection. They instill in him distrust of his own nature, after which the person begins to feel the need for external guidance of himself. The founders of sects, as a rule, pursue selfish goals of personal enrichment and power over people who have succumbed to their influence. In return, the latter gain a sense of security, confidence in their future and in the correctness of their chosen path.
Human...
Psychological defense was considered within the framework of psychoanalysis (S. Freud, A. Freud, A. Adler, K. G. Jung, K. Horney, E. Erikson, E. Fromm), humanistic psychology (A. Maslow, K. Rogers), Gestalt psychology (V. Reich, F. Perls), domestic psychology (D. B. Uznadze, V. N. Myasishchev, F. V. Bassin, F. E. Vasilyuk, L. I. Antsyferova, R. M. Granovskaya, Nikolskaya I.M., Sokolova E.T., Kryukova T.L., Libin A.V., Rusina N.A., etc.).
What is common is that psychological protection is understood as a system of personality stabilization that eliminates psychological discomfort.
Psychological defense was first described in the paradigm of psychoanalysis. As is known, the personality structure according to Freud includes the “Id”, “I” and “Super-ego”. The instincts and desires of the “It” (being asocial and selfish according to Freud), expelled from consciousness, strive to be satisfied. This energy is the "engine" of human behavior. But the “Super-I” (social norms) puts a rein on them and thereby makes it possible for people to exist together. Mental and social development a person goes through establishing a balance between instincts and cultural norms - a person’s “I” is forced to constantly seek a compromise between the energy of the unconscious rushing out and what is allowed by society. This balance, compromise, is established through the protective mechanisms of the psyche. Z. Freud studied the relationship between certain types of mental illness and neuroses. He defined defense as a mechanism that operates in a situation of conflict and is aimed at reducing the feeling of anxiety that arises in the process. He saw the solution to the conflict in the translation of traumatic experiences from the unconscious into consciousness and their response (1894). S. Freud saw the position of the psychotherapist as an absolute authority, the only active party in interaction with the patient, who focuses on identifying and analyzing personality conflicts.
The concept of “defense mechanisms” was introduced by A. Freud, who considered them as perceptual, intellectual and motor automatisms that arose in the process of involuntary and voluntary learning, and the decisive importance in their formation was given to traumatic events in the sphere of early interpersonal relationships (1936).
Followers of psychoanalysis, with similar views on the understanding of defense mechanisms as an integral property of the individual, define in different ways the sources of conflicts that bring them into action: C. G. Jung connects internal conflict with the discrepancy between the requirements of the external environment and the typological attitude of the individual; A. Adler sees the source in the conflict between feelings of inferiority and the desire for power; K. Horney points out the conflict between basic aspirations and the satisfaction of incompatible neurotic needs; E. Erickson - with psychosocial personality crises; E. Fromm sees the reason in the conflict between freedom and maintaining a sense of security. A. Maslow sees in defense mechanisms internal obstacles to adequate perception and subsequent realistic mastery of the situation. In contrast to the psychoanalytic understanding of psychological defense as a necessary condition for avoiding neurosis, as a way to eliminate conflict and as a factor in personality development, A. Maslow believes that defense is a factor that impedes personal growth.
The psychotherapeutic practice of K. Rogers was focused not on identifying and analyzing personality conflicts (unlike Freud), but on creating conditions for self-acceptance and self-actualization of the client’s personality. He emphasized that the therapist’s influence should not be directed directly at the client (as in psychoanalysis), but only at the situation in which the client is located, so that it corresponds to the possibility of updating “here and now” the client’s experience, which is threatening for him . In the context of interaction with a therapist, the client’s empirically observed resistance, according to K. Rogers, is a way of changing the threatening situation in which he finds himself, and not at all a defense in the process of awareness. The primary function of the therapist is to provide a situation in which the client can lower his defenses and look objectively at his real thoughts, feelings and conflicts. Z. Freud suggests that a person cope with his conflicts in the “world of conflict,” and K. Rogers - in the “world of empathy.” In both cases, the person has a new understanding of the situation and can act differently. However, in the first case, the other person acts for the client as an actual or potential adversary, and in the second - as a friend and ally (according to V.I. Zhurbin).
The problem of psychological defense was also the subject of consideration by representatives of Gestalt psychology. V. Reich introduced the concept of “character armor” and “bodily armor” as phenomena of constant protection. F. Perls continued the idea that psychological defense appears in “body language” and developed it into the theory of the unity of body and psyche. As a central indicator and criterion of personal health, F. Perls proposed a balance between the individual and the environment, achieved by awareness of oneself and one’s needs.
The research and concepts of psychological defense developed in Russian psychological science are based on two main approaches: the theory of attitude of D.B. Uznadze and the theory of relationships of V.N. Myasishchev. But, in contrast to the psychoanalytic emphasis on the conflict between consciousness and the unconscious, the emphasis is shifted to the dissonance between various systems installations. Among domestic researchers, the greatest contribution to the development of the problem of psychological defense was made by F.V. Bassin. He categorically disagreed with the position of psychoanalysis that mental health is “the last resort for eliminating emotional stress caused by the conflict between the conscious and unconscious” and believed (like Zeigarnik, E.T. Sokolova and others) that psychological defense is normal , a daily working mechanism of human consciousness. Other researchers (V.A. Tashlykov, F.E. Vasilyuk, etc.) believe that protective mechanisms limit the optimal development of the individual, its “own activity,” “reaching a new level of regulation and interaction with the world” R.M. Granovskaya, I.M. Nikolskaya propose to distinguish between pathological psychological defense or inadequate forms of adaptation and “normal, preventive, constantly present in our everyday life.” A broad interpretation of psychological defense was carried out within the framework of personality theory (L. I. Antsyferova, F. E. Vasilyuk, B. V. Zeigarnik,). F. E. Vasilyuk offers a typology of critical situations that trigger the action of defense mechanisms. These include, as they become more complex, stress, frustration, conflict and crisis. L.I. Antsyferova reduces defense mechanisms to three main coping strategies - constructive, non-constructive, self-defeating. L.I. Antsyferova also points to the influence of personality traits on the choice of strategies and identifies two types of personality: internals, aimed at successful coping, and externals, confident in their own incapacity.
The actualization of psychological defense mechanisms is facilitated by situations that represent a serious test for a person, which to some extent exceed his internal resources, and go beyond the scope of his current development. Psychological protection is determined not by the objective event as such, but by the subjective significance of this event for a person.
The main task of psychological defense is to eliminate psychological discomfort, and not to actually solve the situation.
16 psychological defense mechanisms according to R. Plutchik:
Physical activity (“do something!”) - reducing anxiety caused by a forbidden impulse by allowing its direct or indirect expression without developing feelings of guilt.
Compensation (“but I... still am... someday I...") - an intensive attempt to correct or find a suitable replacement for a real or imaginary, physical or psychological failure.
Denial (“don’t notice it!”) - lack of awareness of certain events, elements of life experience or feelings that are painful if aware of them.
Substitution (“that’s who is to blame for everything!”)- the release of hidden emotions, usually anger, on objects, animals or people perceived as less dangerous to the individual than those that actually caused the emotion.
Fantasy (“relieve anxiety in another world!”) - escape in the imagination in order to avoid real problems or to avoid conflicts.
Identification (“Be like this!”)- unconscious modeling of another person's attitudes and behavior as a way to increase self-worth or cope with possible separation or loss.
Intellectualization (“rethink this!”) - unconscious control of emotions and impulses through excessive reliance on rational interpretation of events.
Introjection (“don’t know where you got this from!”) - appropriation of values, standards or character traits of other people in order to prevent conflicts or threats on their part.
Isolation (isolate yourself so you don’t feel it!) - perception of emotionally traumatic situations or memories of them without the feeling of anxiety naturally associated with them.
Projection (“attribute your shortcomings to someone else!”) - unconscious reflection of one’s own emotionally unacceptable thoughts, properties or desires and attribution of them to other people.
Rationalization (“find an excuse for this!”) - finding plausible reasons to justify actions caused by suppressed, unacceptable feelings.
Formation of a reaction (“reverse it!”) - preventing the expression of unacceptable desires, especially sexual or aggressive ones, by developing or emphasizing contrary attitudes and behavior.
Regression (“cry about it!”) - reversion under stress to earlier or more immature patterns of behavior and satisfaction.
Suppression (“don’t remember this!”)- exclusion from consciousness of meaning and associated emotions, or experience and associated emotions.
Sublimation (“transform it!”) - satisfaction of repressed instinctive or unacceptable feelings, especially sexual or aggressive, by implementing socially approved alternatives.
Cancellation (“cross it out!”) - behavior or thoughts that contribute to the symbolic nullification of a previous act or thought, accompanied by severe anxiety or feelings of guilt.
Mechanisms of formation of psychological problems and psychosomatic disorders:
In a general sense, these mechanisms are associated with contradiction, mutual opposition between two forms of organization of cognitive processes: logical and pre-logical (primary process according to S. Freud, organismic evaluative process according to K. Rogers). The idea of the existence of two fundamentally different types of cognitive processes, differing in their role in psychological adaptation of the individual, is repeated with some variations in many models of personality, both abstract theoretical and purely applied (psychocorrectional). The following table brings together the provisions of a number of similar models - general psychological (reflecting the evolutionary and ontogenetic development of the psyche, as well as related to the reflection of functional asymmetry of the hemispheres at the level of cognitive processes) and specific ones created by the authors of individual psychotherapeutic methods (including psychoanalysis by S. Freud, cognitive therapy A Beck, person-centered counseling according to K. Rogers, rational-emotive therapy according to A. Ellis).
Table 1. Various models of adaptive and maladaptive cognitive mechanisms.
| Models of the psyche | Cognitive | mechanisms |
| Right hemisphere | Left hemisphere | |
| Are common | ||
| Physiological | Concrete-imaginative thinking | Abstract logical thinking |
| Ontogenetic | Children's thinking | Mature thinking |
| Evolutionary | Pre-logical thinking | Logical thinking |
| FREQUENT | ||
| Z. Freud | Primary process * | Secondary process |
| A. Beck | Primary cognitive Treatment * |
Secondary cognitive Treatment |
| K. Rogers | Organismic evaluative | Conditional values * |
| A. Ellis | Irrational thinking * | Rational thinking |
Note: * - maladaptive cognitive mechanisms
From the point of view of the organization of cognitive processes, the general mechanism for the formation of psychological problems is presented as follows. In a situation of stress, confusion and uncertainty, an altered state of consciousness is spontaneously formed, associated with regression, the transition to the primary process according to S. Freud, or in the terminology of A. Beck - a cognitive shift. In other words, there is a return to the right-hemisphere, “childish” (figurative, pre-logical or “alien-logical”), evolutionarily ancient subconscious method of cognitive processing of information. As D. M. Cummerow, N. D. Barger, and L. C. Kirby (2001) put it, in situations of acute stress and loss of self-control, “we act like children or insist on a groundless point of view,” losing the ability to reason logically. From a Jungian point of view psychological typology(for more details, see the section on the typological approach to psychocorrection), in this case there is a temporary transition from the leading (conscious) typological function to the subordinate (previously subconscious, repressed). From the point of view of the psychodynamic model, there is an activation of typical mechanisms of psychological defenses (discussed in detail in the section “Childhood causes of adult problems”), in the so-called neurolinguistic meta-model (NLP) - the inclusion of individual “filters” of consciousness, such as generalizations, exceptions (omissions) ) and distortions (Williams K., 2002).
This implies the illogicality of decisions made by a person in such a state, from the position of formal logic, everyday consciousness. And often, accordingly, their inadaptability and unacceptability in the eyes of others, from the point of view of socially accepted norms and stereotypes of behavior (in comparison with the primitive-naive, “primitive” logic of the subconscious). Returning to an ordinary state, a person experiences Negative consequences mismatch between conscious and subconscious cognitive and motivational-emotional mechanisms of the psyche, described as its “splitting”, “fragmentation” with the formation of subconscious structures opposing conscious aspirations. These relatively autonomous fragments of personality are described under different names in many psychotherapeutic theories: this can include Jung’s and Adler’s “complexes”, “subpersonalities” in psychosynthesis (R. Assagioli), “internal parts” in NLP, “incomplete gestalts” in Gestalt therapy or “suppressed integrity” according to V.V Kozlov (1993) in transpersonal therapy, “clusters” according to M. Shcherbakov (1994) in deep integrative psychotherapy. It is precisely these mechanisms, at the physiological level associated with the mismatch between the activity of the left hemisphere (conscious) and the right hemisphere (in the ordinary state - subconscious), that underlie ideas about the multiplicity of “I” (Gurdjiev G.I., 2001, 1992) or a mosaic, matrix structure personality (Skvortsov V., 1993).
Actually, the idea of a “split” of the psyche as a mechanism for bodily and psychological problems was put forward in late XIX V. French clinician and psychologist P. Janet. In his work “Psychological Automatism” (1889), he described a person’s reaction to a traumatic situation as a split, or splitting off from the conscious part of the personality of individual parts, the content of which is related to the experience of this situation. He called these fragments of the personality “fixed ideas”: “Such an idea, like a virus, develops in a corner of the personality inaccessible to the subject, acts subconsciously and causes all the disturbances... mental disorder"(cited from Rutkevich A.M., 1997). These “fragments,” plunging into the depths of the subconscious, subsequently lead a relatively autonomous existence. Periodically, in moments of weakness of the conscious part of the personality, they can “take over” a person’s consciousness, narrowing the sphere of attention and causing a variety of painful manifestations - both mental and physical.
This implies the practical importance for psychocorrection of the idea of polarity/ambivalence as the basis of the “mosaic” nature of the psyche, as well as the integration of conflicting parts of the personality as a way of eliminating internal psychological conflicts (see description of the Retri method).
Specific mechanisms of disruption of the adaptive role of cognitive processes during the transition to pre-logical, “childish” thinking are given in table (2. The most detailed manifestations of the mentioned maladaptive “childishness” of thinking are described by F. Perls in the form of the so-called Contact boundary violations(or Universal neurotic mechanisms, according to M. Papush), including the following varieties:
1) someone else’s point of view is sincerely perceived as one’s own; automatic submission to external influence occurs through incorporated beliefs and parental attitudes (introjection). In the psychoanalytic model of personality, this corresponds to the hypertrophy of the “moralizing” function of the Super-Ego.
2) Lack of own point of view; hypertrophied conformism and dependence on others, violation of self-identity (fusion) - an analogue of childhood lack of independence, weakness of the conscious Ego.
3) The difficulty of choosing one’s own point of view, shifting responsibility onto the shoulders of others, onto “elders” in the literal or figurative sense, as well as attributing one’s own desires to others (projection). Fear of responsibility and inability to take it upon oneself are also associated with the immaturity of the ego.
4) The tendency to recognize one’s own point of view as erroneous and the resulting self-punishment, even to the point of self-reflection (retroflection). The reason for such a masochistic mood often lies in the excessive strengthening of the educational and punitive function of the Super-Ego.
In the spiritual and philosophical tradition, to the most general, Basic mechanisms of the formation of psychological problems(and obstacles to personal growth) are usually considered to be the following (Uspensky P.D., 2002):
1) insincerity. This refers not so much to selfish deception or lies caused by specific life circumstances, but rather to a person’s habit of “doublethink,” internal duality, and instability. Insincerity also extends to a person’s attitude towards himself, developing into superficiality and frivolity, and even into self-deception, when what is desired is presented as reality. Particularly common are such types of self-deception “for the good” as ignoring existing problems (a mask of ostentatious well-being), and also, if it is not possible to hide the problem, overestimating the ability to cope with it on one’s own (false, apparent control of a person over oneself, especially over one’s own feelings ). Such games of adults (in the words of E. Bern) are also “islands of childhood”, essentially a transformation of children's play.
2) Imagination. This refers to an excessive imagination, divorced from life, which a person uses not to solve problems, but to create them. (Remember Charcot’s classic definition: “Neurosis is a disease of the imagination”).
3) Identification is a state when a person, in the words of P. D. Uspensky (2002), “cannot separate himself from an idea, feeling or object that has absorbed him.” Here one can see a direct analogy with such a neurotic mechanism, described by F. Perls, as fusion and leading to personality disorders such as addiction or identity disturbance. Such preoccupation, whether it be a preoccupation with emotion or a selfless fascination with the process of some activity, usually a game, is also characteristic feature child behavior. Psychologically, this is explained by the child’s lack of differentiation of his own “I”, his merging with the world around him, which is perceived as part of himself (children’s syncretism).
But if identification with an activity (both with its result and with the process of activity itself) has the most important positive meaning (adaptive, creative) for both a child and a mature personality, then identification with an emotion is in many cases maladaptive. The source of psychological problems can also be identification with a certain object (usually a close person, less often with social status or material property), the loss of which results in a kind of “rebound syndrome”, described in psychoanalysis as “loss of an object.” To prevent such problems as one grows older (and especially in the process of conscious personal growth), a person needs to develop the skill of disidentification (distancing, dissociation).
4) Taking into account, which means increased dependence on the opinions of others. Increased conformity and self-doubt, closely related to instability of self-esteem, contribute to this. The latter can undergo sharp changes: from inflated self-esteem to an extreme degree of self-deprecation, depending on external laudatory or, on the contrary, critical remarks. The analogy between these personality traits of an adult and the psychology of a child is obvious and undeniable.
Accordingly, to correct these cognitive impairments, an altered state of consciousness is also necessary, but one that is created purposefully (psychocorrectional). We consider such a state of consciousness as a kind of “return to childhood,” which is based on physiological age regression (Sandomirsky M. E., Belogorodsky L. S., 1998). From this point of view, essentially all methods of psychotherapy and personal growth are based on a person’s temporary return “to childhood,” carried out either with the help of a psychotherapist/psychologist or independently.
This is true for various techniques, starting with classical hypnosis (which is the most pronounced manifestation of transference relationships, in which the hypnotist plays the role of an authoritative, “omnipotent” parent, and the patient, accordingly, plays the role of a submissive child) and ending with such techniques as transactional analysis (working with the inner “child” "), Gestalt therapy, NLP, psychosynthesis, holodynamics, using work with subpersonalities, or subconscious parts - representing the “childish” parts of the psyche, Ericksonian hypnosis and self-hypnosis (affirmations, moods, etc.), addressing the “childish” part of the personality through “children’s” speech, work with images (for example, symbol drama, directed imagination, etc.). In “conversational” methods focused on insight (psychoanalysis, existential analysis), a return to a similar state occurs in brief “moments of truth” when a person comes to a new understanding of his problems. As awareness deepens, the problem transforms, “crystallizes” (see below), which in itself gives a psychocorrectional effect.
In modern psychological literature There may be different terms relating to protection phenomena. In the broadest sense, defense is a concept that denotes any reaction of the body in order to preserve itself and its integrity. In medicine, for example, various phenomena of defensive reactions to resist disease (body resistance) are well known. Or the body's protective reflexes, such as reflexive blinking of the eye as a reaction to an approaching object. In psychology, the most common terms relating to the phenomena mental protection- defense mechanisms, defense reactions, defense strategies, etc. Currently, psychological defense is considered to be any reaction to which a person resorts unconsciously in order to protect his internal structures, his consciousness from feelings of anxiety, shame, guilt, anger, as well as from conflict, frustration and other situations experienced as dangerous.
Distinctive features of defense mechanisms are the following:
- A) defense mechanisms are unconscious;
- B) the result of the defense mechanism is that they unconsciously distort, replace or falsify the reality with which the subject is dealing. On the other hand, the role of defense mechanisms in a person’s adaptation to reality also has positive side, because in a number of cases they are a means of adapting a person to the excessive demands of reality or to the excessive internal demands of a person on himself. In cases of various post-traumatic states of a person, for example, after a serious loss (of a loved one, a part of one’s body, a social role, a significant relationship, etc.), protective mechanisms often play a saving role for a certain period of time.
Each of the defense mechanisms is a separate way in which a person’s unconscious protects him from internal and external stress. With the help of one or another defense mechanism, a person unconsciously avoids reality (suppression), excludes reality (denial), turns reality into its opposite (reactive formation), divides reality into its own and the opposite (reactive formation), moves away from reality (regression), distorts topography of reality, placing the internal in the external (projection). However, in any case, maintaining the operation of a certain mechanism requires constant expenditure of the subject’s psychic energy: sometimes these expenditures are very significant, as, for example, when using denial or suppression. In addition, the energy spent on maintaining protection can no longer be used for more positive and constructive forms of behavior. Which weakens his personal potential and leads to limited mobility and power of consciousness. Defenses seem to “bind” mental energy, and when they become too strong and begin to dominate behavior, this reduces a person’s ability to adapt to changing conditions of reality. Otherwise, when the defense fails, a crisis also ensues.
The reasons determining the choice of one mechanism or another remain unclear. Perhaps each defense mechanism is formed to master specific instinctive impulses and is thus associated with a specific phase of child development.
All methods of defense serve a single purpose - to help consciousness in the fight against instinctive life. A simple struggle is enough to trigger defense mechanisms. However, consciousness is protected not only from displeasure emanating from the inside. In the same early period When the consciousness becomes acquainted with dangerous internal instinctual stimuli, it also experiences displeasure, the source of which is in the external world. Consciousness is in close contact with this world, which gives it objects of love and those impressions that are recorded by its perception and assimilated by its intellect. The greater the significance of the external world as a source of pleasure and interest, the higher the opportunity to experience the displeasure emanating from it.
Psychiatrists and clinical psychologists come to understand the role of defense mechanisms in personality development. The predominance or dominance of any defense mechanism can lead to the development of a certain personality trait. Or, conversely, a person with strong characteristics individuals tend to trust certain defense mechanisms as a way of coping with certain stresses: for example, a person with high self-control tends to use intellectualization as a main defense mechanism. On the other hand, it has been found that people with severe personality disorders and disturbances, a certain defense mechanism may predominate as a means of distorting reality. For example, a personality disorder such as paranoia (fear of persecution) is associated with projection, and psychopathy is mainly associated with regression as a personal defense mechanism.
Of all the periods of human life in which instinctive processes assume gradual importance, the period of puberty has always attracted the greatest attention. Mental phenomena indicating the onset of puberty have long been the subject of psychological research. You can find many works describing the changes occurring in character during these years, disturbances in mental balance and, above all, incomprehensible and irreconcilable contradictions that appear in mental life. This is a period of increased sexual and aggressive tendencies. During puberty, psychotic disorders may occur to escape difficulties; mood swings and stress can lead to psychotic episodes in behavior.
UDC 159.923.37:616.89-008.444.1
MECHANISMS OF FORMATION OF THE PSYCHOLOGICAL PROBLEM OF FEELINGS OF GUILT
E.A. SOKOLOVA*
Gomel State University named after Francis Skaryna,
Gomel, Republic of Belarus
A targeted study of the literature shows some mechanisms for the formation of the psychological problem of guilt, its dynamics and varieties. The psychological problem of guilt may be related to hostility, responsibility, or both; it can have both negative and positive dynamics. In the dynamics of personality development, the psychological problem of guilt is transformed and its connections change both within the psychological problem and between the psychological problem and the personality.
Key words: guilt, psychological problem, neurosis, suicide, depression.
Introduction
One of the psychological problems is guilt. It can be: an independent psychological problem, a component of the child’s depressive position, or a component of certain types mental pathology or certain mental illnesses. At the same time, guilt is one of the most difficult psychological problems to solve, which is associated with a number of reasons:
Firstly, a person does not always seek psychological help, considering guilt as a punishment for his wrongdoing, real or imaginary. Self-punishment is associated with understanding the meaning of guilt. There is practically no disagreement in the understanding of the feeling of guilt. As A. Reber writes,
© Sokolova E.A., 2016.
*For correspondence:
Sokolova Emilia Aleksandrovna Candidate of Medical Sciences,
Associate Professor, Department of Psychology, Gomel State University named after Francis Skaryna 246019 Republic of Belarus, Gomel, st. Sovetskaya, 104
Guilt is “an emotional state caused by a person’s awareness that he has violated moral standards.” According to A. Kempinski, guilt “can be interpreted as punishment for violating the system of moral values.” M. Jacobi believes that “guilt gives me the feeling that I am a bad person because I did something - or perhaps just thought about doing something - that should not be done.” M. Jacobi clarifies the situation of its occurrence, pointing out that “the feeling of guilt appears when I am the cause of someone’s misfortune or violate some generally accepted norms”;
Secondly, the mechanisms of formation of feelings of guilt are not fully clear, which interferes with the provision of psychological assistance;
Thirdly, it is possible to understand the specifics of guilt as part of various diseases, pathologies or as a psychological problem, as well as understanding the mechanisms of its occurrence or existence determines differences in the provision of psychological assistance.
The mechanisms of the emergence of feelings of guilt as an independent psychological problem are not presented in co-
temporary research. According to E. Lindemann, guilt is part of the normal reaction of acute grief. The mechanisms of the formation of feelings of guilt as part of the reaction of acute grief are also insufficiently studied. Boundaries that allow us to distinguish between guilt as a psychological problem and guilt as a component mental illness or mental pathology are not clear enough. Considering that the differences between the feeling of guilt as a problem and the feeling of guilt as a component of mental pathology or mental illness may be important when providing psychological assistance, understanding the mechanisms of formation and dynamics of the feeling of guilt as a psychological problem is relevant.
The purpose of this study is to analyze and establish a number of mechanisms of the emergence and dynamics of guilt as a psychological problem. The methodological approach of the study is theoretical analysis of the literature.
The main part is literature analysis
A psychological problem always has prerequisites and conditions for its occurrence. Prerequisites may be personality traits, congenital or formed in the process of ontogenesis. The emergence of preconditions for feelings of guilt can be imagined to be associated with at least two features of the child’s development:
With the formation of sensorimotor skills, shown in the studies of J. Piaget;
With the level-by-level organization of contact with the environment presented in the studies of V.V. Lebedinsky, O.S. Nikolskaya, E.R. Baenskaya and M.M. Liebling.
The child's experience is represented, among other components, by sensorimotor patterns of infancy skills. Since in a sensorimotor skill sensation is associated with action, then some of
These skills can be represented as follows:
- “a feeling of need for food - a desire for the mother’s breast”;
- “a feeling of need for warmth - a desire for the mother”;
- “a feeling of need for security - a desire for parents.”
As V.V. writes Lebedinsky et al., at the first level of organizing contact with the environment - the level of “field activity” - there is a “constant process of choosing the position of greatest comfort and safety.” The position of greatest comfort and safety for the child is to be close to the mother. At this level, a range of phenomena fraught with danger is identified. “In the range of phenomena fraught with danger, we take into account... information synthesized by cognitive systems: the possibility of a shift in the environment towards instability, uncertainty, and information deficiency.” If the mother has left, then the process of satisfying needs, previously freely realized through the presented cognitive schemes, is difficult, and the child defines this situation as potentially dangerous. He experiences an information deficit because he does not know when he will be able to satisfy his needs.
At the second level of organizing contact with the environment, which, as indicated by V.V. Lebedinsky and others, does not like to wait, the child develops anxiety and fear associated with a situation that threatens danger and information deficiency. Emotional discomfort arises due to the current situation.
At the third level, barriers are identified. The child associates the barrier with the mother. At this level of organizing contact with the environment, the child may experience anger and a desire to destroy the barrier that interferes with the satisfaction of needs. Affective experiences at this level are detached from the immediate sensory basis, which makes it possible
the essence of “life in the imagination”. At this level, fantasies appear, and in the child’s fantasies a desire for the death of the mother may appear.
As D. Shapiro notes, “there must be some kind of integration process, thanks to which a half-formed sensation is associatively tied to existing inclinations, feelings, interests, etc. and thus receives associative content (gaining weight, so to speak) and at the same time becomes more specific and complex.” The primary needs for food, safety, and warmth are primary in relation to doubts about the possibility of their implementation and regarding the anxiety, fear and hostility that arise in connection with these doubts.
But already at the next - fourth level of organizing contact with the environment, empathy appears, and “the foundations of the arbitrary organization of human behavior” are laid. A person has drives that are “affectively unacceptable to other people.” It is at this level that the child masters the suppression of such drives. The child suppresses his anger and aggression. The desire for the mother's death conflicts with the feeling of empathy for her. Preconditions for feelings of guilt are formed, and their formation has its own dynamics.
During infancy, feelings of guilt arise as part of a depressive position. More early onset Guilt is currently not represented in the scientific literature. It can be assumed that the time of formation of a depressive position coincides with the onset of feelings of guilt. The child's depressive position was considered by object relations theory as a component of his normal development. The mechanisms of formation of feelings of guilt as part of a child’s depressive position are shown by M. Klein. He associates depressive anxiety “with experiences
regarding the harm caused to internal and external beloved objects by the subject’s hostility.” In this understanding, depressive anxiety is a consequence of feelings of guilt. First, the prerequisites for the feeling of guilt develop, then the feeling of guilt itself arises, and on this basis the child’s depressive position develops.
Since a child experiences a feeling of guilt towards his mother in infancy, the cognitive scheme of “guilt”
Parents” is laid down in infancy. Its actualization, like the actualization of other cognitive schemes, can occur under circumstances similar to the circumstances of their occurrence.
In our understanding, such a cognitive scheme is a prerequisite for both the subsequent formation of a feeling of guilt as a psychological problem, and the emergence of a feeling of guilt as part of a mental pathology, if it subsequently arises.
The condition for the occurrence of a psychological problem in the presence of prerequisites
Changing the situation. One such situation is a quarrel with the mother. When a preschool child quarrels with his mother, he could develop hostility towards her and fantasies about her death. Hostility towards the mother and fantasies about her death came into conflict with the child's love for his mother. Z. Freud writes about the pathogenic situation and experiences associated with the fact that “a desire arose that was in sharp contradiction with other desires of the individual, a desire that was incompatible with the ethical and aesthetic views of the individual.”
The circumstances of the quarrel with the mother are similar to the circumstances of the primary emergence of feelings of guilt during the formation of a depressive position. In response to this, the child’s cognitive scheme, laid down in infancy, “parents are at fault,” is updated. Feeling guilty for your
the hostility may not have been fully realized by the child, but the resulting psychological discomfort, associated, on the one hand, with love for the mother, and on the other, with hostility towards her, with the desire for her death, was realized. The combination of cognitive and emotional components regarding the same cause of psychological discomfort - (experiences exist, and they are recognized) and a behavioral component manifested in fantasies (mother's death) is characteristic of a psychological problem.
The psychological problem of guilt, having appeared, subsequently has intrapersonal dynamics. As D. Shapiro writes, “an emotion that appears in consciousness as a result of the normal process of integration of the associative connection of a half-formed impulse with existing goals, interests and tastes - a person perceives such an emotion as his own; it corresponds to a person’s personality and affects him deeply.” Based on this, the feeling of guilt as a psychological problem is formed in interaction with the components of the personality and is included in the inner world of the individual as an independent intrapersonal phenomenon. D. Shapiro points out that “in the normal integration process, a semi-intuitive thought becomes a conscious judgment, a half-formed, vague sensation becomes a concrete and deep emotion.” The experience of guilt is recognized. According to L.S. Vygotsky, experiences are primary relative to their awareness in the form of concepts. He writes: “The concept actually transfers the child from the level of experience to the level of cognition.” The connections between experiences and awareness in the form of concepts are hierarchical, and awareness begins to play a dominant role.
A deep and most often secretly experienced emotion of guilt (a conscious psychological problem of feeling
guilt) further reinforces the cognitive scheme “guilt - parents” that developed in infancy.
A psychological problem, as a separate neoplasm, is integrated into an already existing personality system in its connections and interaction with both environment, as well as other components of personality.
There is not only a specification and complication of the relationships within the psychological problem (its cognitive, emotional and behavioral components), but also its relationships with the components of the personality of the subject - the bearer of the psychological problem. The problem lies within the inner world, into which the subject, as a rule, does not allow everyone or does not allow anyone.
The formation of the psychological problem of guilt is thus a multi-stage process in which the following occurs:
Preliminary formation of the prerequisites for its occurrence;
Changes in conditions affecting the dynamics of normal intrapersonal, interpersonal and environmental interactions;
Cognitive processing of information about an unfavorable situation, taking into account changes in connections with various components of the personality;
The emergence of mutually exclusive experiences, their awareness, integration into a single psychological problem;
Awareness of a psychological problem as a separate intrapersonal neoplasm;
Development of connections within the individual with a psychological problem as a separate neoplasm;
Interaction with the outside world, taking into account the existing psychological problem;
Consolidation of the “fault-parents” cognitive scheme established in infancy.
Different mechanisms are involved in the emergence of the psychological problem of guilt:
Cognitive (thinking operations, the sequence of their inclusion, control);
Emotional (response in terms of extent and intensity, support of the process of need dissatisfaction and emotional assessment of the result);
The combined action of cognitive and emotional mechanisms, in particular, “the discrepancy between cognitive and emotional assessments of the environment, the greater subjectivity of the latter create conditions for various transformations, attributing new meanings to the environment, shifts into the realm of the unreal.” As a result, cognitive judgments are formed that are irrational in nature. For example, “survivor's guilt” in post-traumatic stress stress disorder based on an irrational idea. Its essence is the inclusion in the sphere of human control of what is beyond control;
Mechanisms of consciousness: awareness of spatial (E.A. Sokolova, 2014) and temporal connections of a psychological problem, awareness of individual components of a psychological problem (for example, experiences), identification and awareness of a psychological problem as a separate phenomenon;
Personal (formation different types connections both within a psychological problem and a problem with a personality, the dynamics of personality development taking into account the presence of a psychological problem);
Behavioral (formation of behavior taking into account the presence of a psychological problem).
Different mechanisms are activated at different stages of the formation of a psychological problem.
The emerging psychological problem is “embedded” in the personality and begins to dictate certain conditions to the personality
its existence. If a psychological problem arises in a normal person, then “the normal person “endures” the disorder or at least postpones the gratification of his whim, because he is interested in other things; he is tuned to goals and interests that are more important to him.” That is, the existing psychological problem in healthy person allows him to carry out his activities and realize his goals. In a normal person’s ranked system of goals, the goal of relieving the psychological problem of guilt is not in first place. You can coexist with it. As a result, if a person has a psychological problem of guilt, the person remains externally adapted to society.
If a psychological problem allows a person to engage in his activities and realize his goals, then when a feeling of guilt arises as part of a neurosis, the situation changes. In neurosis, according to K. Horney, self-accusation is “an expression of self-hatred.” As K. Horney writes, for a person with neurosis, “the entire effect of self-observation is that he feels “guilty” or inferior, and as a result, his low self-esteem is even lower and makes it difficult for him to try to stand up for himself next time.” Disadaptation of personality during neurosis interferes with a person's self-realization.
According to K.G. Jung, “the untouchable stock of neurosis includes dissociation, conflict, complex, regression and decline in mental level.” The feeling of guilt in neurosis is combined with the symptoms indicated by this author.
The emergence of the K.G. complex Jung associates it with “painful or painful experiences and impressions.” “In the case of complexes, we are mostly talking about unpleasant things that are better to forget about and never remember.” This is what happens.
If the feeling of guilt is no longer reinforced by external circumstances, then over time the feeling of guilt is forgotten.
K.G. Jung notes that the possession of complexes “does not in itself indicate neurosis, complexes are natural focal points for the collection of mental events, and the fact that they are painful does not mean that a pathological disorder is present.” It follows from this that a psychological problem of guilt is possible, and a guilt complex is possible, which is a “collection point for mental events.” In our view, the complex unites a number of psychological problems caused by a common understanding of their cause.
L.A. The parchment man points to “guilt for imaginary sins” - in neurosis, and two options - “guilt for what you didn’t do” and “survivor’s guilt” - in post-traumatic stress disorder. This author associates the feeling of guilt with a person’s suffering due to a “painful sense of responsibility.”
In psychotic and neurotic depression there is also the problem of guilt. “With neurotic depression, the problems of guilt and one’s own inadequacy are mixed and become indissoluble, but they are never accompanied by delusions of sinfulness.”
Distinguishing the feeling of guilt as part of endogenous and neurotic depression, S. Mentzos points out that “if the accusing “finger” of a depressed patient is directed outward (and not at himself), then we are talking about neurotic, and not about endogenous depression.” He describes one of the psychotic episodes, diagnosed as affective psychosis, in which, unlike schizophrenia, “there is no violation of the boundaries of the Self and identification, there is no confusion and disintegration,” but it is characterized by “a feeling of guilt in conjunction with very intense aggression,
as a consequence of the loss of an object and (or) frustration leading to self-humiliation.”
According to K. Horney, “a person can suffer from feelings of guilt, remaining unable to associate it with something specific.” It is possible that the cognitive scheme “I am guilty”, laid down in early childhood, has a different mechanism of emergence than the “guilt - parents” scheme. This cognitive circuitry may also be involved in post-traumatic stress disorder. This has not yet been studied enough.
Thus, there are features of the manifestations of guilt as a psychological problem and guilt as part of mental pathology or mental illness.
The psychological problem of a child’s feeling of guilt towards his parents may continue. Over time, the child forgot about the feeling of guilt that once arose. If after many years the parent died, then the cognitive scheme “feelings of guilt - parents” was again actualized in an adult. At the same time, she received a different semantic content associated with the rarity of communication, insufficient help for elderly parents, etc. This is represented in culture, particularly folk songs, and resonates with listeners. That is, the link “guilt - parents” as a cognitive scheme of a psychological problem remained, but the content of the feeling of guilt changed. The adult discards childhood fantasies and bases his sense of guilt on real facts your behavior. M. Jacobi writes: “I can feel this kind of discomfort even when I have not done something that I was obliged to do.” If in childhood the feeling of guilt was associated with hostility, then the same feeling towards parents in an adult son or daughter was combined with responsibility.
For some period of time after the death of a parent, guilt was part of
reactions of acute grief, but over time the acute grief passed. The feeling of guilt could remain in the form of a latent psychological problem, periodically being updated.
The further dynamics of the psychological problem of guilt, in our opinion, occurred as follows. Since a person develops throughout his life (Erikson, 2002), over time there was a revision of life values, in particular, the importance of the role of parents was realized or increased while maintaining love for them and experiences due to their loss. In childhood, the child was taught respect for parents, but a true understanding of this occurred already in mature age. It can be assumed that as a result, with age, the problem of guilt was transformed into increased respect for parents. One can view understanding one's respect for one's parents as an adaptive process that helps resolve or mitigate the problem of guilt. Adaptability is associated with emphasizing the aspect of one's role in increasing respect for parents and the responsibility for instilling this respect in subsequent generations.
Guilt can be presented as a psychological problem in other ways. R. Gardner describes the feeling of guilt among parents who had a child with special needs. As this author notes, "classical psychoanalysis postulates that such feelings of guilt are often associated with unconscious hostility towards the child, and illness represents the magical fulfillment of these unconscious hostile wishes." According to R. Gardner, parents themselves associate the feeling of guilt for the birth of a child with peculiarities of psychophysical development with their own unworthy behavior preceding the birth of the child, that is, with irresponsibility. Sometimes at the same time
guilt develops into a problem for the whole family when parents begin to blame each other for what happened.
With this option, the psychological problem of guilt is associated with both hostility and irresponsibility. It has negative dynamics and leads to an expansion of the range of psychological problems. As a result, family breakdown is also possible. Another version of the negative dynamics of a psychological problem may arise. In particular, as the number and severity of psychological problems increase, a person may develop psychosomatics.
G. Breslav writes that a special invocation of feelings of guilt is possible, that is, the occurrence of feelings of guilt may be a consequence of the “technique of influence.” In particular, in a family, one of the marriage partners can artificially maintain a feeling of guilt in the other. The purpose of this is to force the partner to take on a greater burden in family life. With this variant of the formation of the psychological problem of guilt, one can assume complementary problems, for example, resentment of a marriage partner.
Another option for the formation of a woman’s sense of guilt in the family is an intrapersonal conflict associated, on the one hand, with the woman’s desire for self-realization, and on the other, with an awareness of her responsibility towards family members. I.L. Shelekhov, T.A. Bulatov and M.Yu. Petrov point out the possibility of contradictions between the values of family and motherhood “with the new gender values of social achievements.”
Conclusion
The presented study allows us to summarize the literature and draw the following conclusions:
The prerequisites for the emergence of feelings of guilt are formed in infancy;
The cognitive scheme “fault - parents” appears during the formation of the child’s depressive position;
There are a number of mechanisms for the formation of feelings of guilt;
It is possible to preserve the cognitive scheme “fault - parent” over a long period of a person’s life. This scheme passes from a latent state to an actualized one when a situation similar to the situation of its occurrence arises;
The cognitive scheme “fault - parents” is updated in difficult life situations either as the guilt of the parents in relation to the child or as the guilt of the child in relation to the parents;
The psychological problem of guilt can have different semantic content;
The psychological problem of guilt may be related to hostility, responsibility, control issues, or a combination of these;
The psychological problem of guilt can have both negative and positive dynamics;
In the dynamics of personality development, the psychological problem of guilt is transformed, its connections change both within the psychological problem and between the psychological problem and the personality.
In general, the study demonstrates some mechanisms for the formation of the psychological problem of guilt in the family, shows its dynamics and varieties, and can be used by a practical psychologist when working with clients.
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MECHANISMS OF GUILT ACQUISITION
E.A. SOKOLOVA Francisk Skorina Gomel State University, Gomel, Republic of Belarus
The literature review shows some of the mechanisms of formation of guilt, its dynamics and types. The psychological problem of guilt may be associated with hostility, responsibility, or both of these components, it might have negative or positive dynamics. The transformation of guilt occurs within the dynamics of personality development, and its relationships change both within the psychological problem, and between the psychological problem and personality.
Keywords: guilt, psychological problems, neurosis, suicide, depression.
Sokolova Emiliya
PhD, Associate Professor,
Department of Psychology of the Francisk Skorina Gomel State University
104, st. Sovetskaya, Gomel, Republic of Belarus, 246019
Email: [email protected]
