Latin alphabet (table), diphthongs, word stress, letter combinations, pronunciation in Latin.
The Latin alphabet has changed its composition throughout the history of the development of the Latin language. The very first alphabet consisted of 21 letters, then new letters began to be added in different eras. Some of them have fallen out of use, others remain. The result is a classic Latin alphabet, consisting of 23 letters (some of which were given by the Greek language).
After the disappearance of the Roman Empire as a state, the Latin alphabet remained the basis for almost all languages of Europe, but in each of the variants there were some changes (the Romance languages that were closest to the classical version of the Latin alphabet were Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Catalan, French).
The modern Latin alphabet consists of 25 letters (if with the letter W, then 26). The letters of the Latin alphabet can be found in the table below:
|
Uppercase |
Lowercase |
Name |
Pronunciation |
|
[G]* |
|||
|
[l]** |
|||
|
[To]*** |
|||
In Latin the following are written with a capital letter:
- proper names;
- names of nationalities and months of the year;
- adjectives formed from proper names, as well as adverbs: Graecia Antiqua - Ancient Greece, Craece scribere - write in Greek
Diphthongs, letter combinations and pronunciation in Latin
The following diphthongs exist in Latin:
ae – pronunciation is similar to the Russian sound [e]
oe – pronounced like the German ö umlaut or the French diphthong, as in peur
au – similar to a combination of Russian sounds [ау]
ei – reads like [hey]
eu – similar to the sound of Russian sounds [eu]
It is worth noting that if one of the letters in a combination of diphthongs has two dots or a quantity sign, then the sounds in this combination will be pronounced separately: po ë ta, poēta
The letter “c” in Latin is read as [k]: crocodilus, cultura, colonia (knees)
The letter “c” + e, i, y, ae, eu, oe is read as the sound [ts]: Cicero, Cyprus, caelum (tselum)
* The letter h is similar in pronunciation to the Ukrainian sound [g]: humus (humus)
“J” - read as [th]: major. If a word begins with this letter, it is usually merged with the following vowel and pronounced as one sound: Januarius, Juppiter.
** The letter “l” is similar in pronunciation to [la, l]: Latinus (latinus), luna (lune).
l + i gives the sound [li], for example: liber (liber).
*** The letter “q” is always found in the combination qu + consonant and is read as [kv]: quadratus (quadratus). The exception is the word quum (godfather). In many publications you can find this word written as cum.
The letter “s” in Latin is read as: universitas (universitas), if the letter “s” is between two vowels, then it is pronounced as [z]: Asia (Asia).
Please note that the combination of letters ti + vowel is read as [qi]: constitution (constitution). Exceptions are: the word totius (totius), as well as s, x, t + ti, for example: ostium (ostium), Bruttium (bruttium), in Greek words, for example: Boeotia (boeotia).
Pronunciation of letter combinations: ngu and su:
ngu + vowel is read as [ngv]: lingua (lingua)
su + vowel is read as [sv], for example: suadeo (swadeo)
Accent in Latin
In words that consist of two syllables, the stress falls on the second syllable from the end: r o sa. In words that have more than two syllables, the stress falls on the second syllable from the end if it is long: nat u ra. If it is short - on the third from the end: f a brica.
Word + particles que, ve, ne shift the stress to the last syllable of a given word, for example: r o sa, but ros a que. If que is part of a word, then the emphasis is placed on general rule:it a que.
In the next article we will look at pronouns in Latin.
Many people ask the question: “What are Latin letters?” In fact, everything is extremely simple. In essence, the Latin alphabet is the alphabetic characters of modern in English. The only difference is the pronunciation.
Where are Latin letters and numbers currently used?
Today, more than 40% of the world's population writes in Latin. And in fact, Latin letters are generally accepted international alphabetic characters. You don’t have to look far for an example; just take out your foreign passport and look at it. Under the surname written in Russian, you will definitely see its Latin version.
Numbers are also widely used in all countries. In Russia they are used in contracts, laws, and for numbering clauses. In order to understand how to write in Latin letters, it is enough to select consonant letters and take into account complex combinations, the table with which is given below. Typically, transliteration tables can be found at the information desk of any foreign consulate.
The history of the emergence of Latin writing
It is believed that the roots of the Latin letter go back to the Etruscan and Greek alphabets. There is also an opinion that the Phoenician letter also had its influence. Some are inclined to think that there were also Egyptian alphabetic signs.
The first reliable studies date back to the 7th century BC. The archaic Latin alphabet consisted of 21 letters.
In 312 BC, Appius Claudius Russ abolished the letter Z, after which only 20 letters remained. In the 1st century, Z returned again, and with it appeared new symbol Y, and the alphabet took on its now familiar form. Over the following years, some letters disappeared and reappeared, some of them eventually united and gave birth to new symbols. Most often, controversy surrounds the letter symbol W.
Influence of the Greek language
Speaking about the Latin alphabet, it is difficult not to mention the influence of the Greek language, since it introduced huge contribution in the formation of the modern Latin spelling. If you are confused about the question: “What are Latin letters?”, then you can search or remember the Greek alphabet.
By the way, the letters x, y and z were borrowed from the Greeks. Interesting fact: they wrote in Greece not only from left to right, but also vice versa, which is why they had so many inscriptions that read the same way, regardless of which end to start with. In fact, this phenomenon is often given a certain mystical character. There is even a magical "SATOR Square". All words written in it are read not only from right to left and vice versa, but, what is most interesting, the characters can also be read diagonally. There is a belief that by writing all these symbols, you can make a wish that will definitely come true.
How to write your first or last name in Latin
Very often, when submitting documents such as visas, you are required to indicate your personal data using exclusively the Latin alphabet, the letters of which must correspond as closely as possible to Russian. Let's look at the most common names and their spellings.
Pronunciation of Latin letters
If you are asking the question: “What are Latin letters?”, then, most likely, you will also be interested in learning how to pronounce them correctly. There are no difficulties here either, since, most likely, you heard this alphabet back in school.
Despite the identity of English letters, they should not be confused. There are no complex or unpronounceable sounds in Latin, so everything is extremely simple. For comparison: in the English language there is a whole list of sounds that are very difficult for a Russian speaker to pronounce.
Finally
We reviewed the topic: “What are Latin letters?”, and now you can easily fill out an application for a visa or for any other documents that you are going to send abroad. Convenience also lies in the fact that sometimes, when you need to dictate an email address or a link on the Internet over the phone, you can use the Latin alphabet - and the interlocutor will definitely understand you. Therefore, you don’t have to explain anything according to the principle “es is like a dollar,” etc.
Centuries have passed, but we still use this amazing language, developed not by scientists based on sociological surveys and other studies, but by people who did not know what electricity was, where the ozone holes were located, and much more. Still a legacy ancient civilizations still makes itself felt, captivating and astonishing with its amazing solutions not only in art, but also in other areas.
| Modern version of the Latin alphabet | |||
| Letter | Name | Letter | Name |
| A | A | N | En |
| B | Bae | O | ABOUT |
| C | Tse | P | Pe |
| D | Dae | Q | Ku |
| E | E | R | Er |
| F | Eph | S | Es |
| G | Ge | T | Tae |
| H | Ha | U | U |
| I | AND | V | Ve |
| J | Yot | W | Double Ve |
| K | Ka | X | X |
| L | El | Y | Upsilon |
| M | Em | Z | Zeta/Zeta |
Let me remind you that the Latin language belongs to the Latin-Falian subgroup of Italic languages (the languages of the tribes that, from the beginning of the 1st millennium BC, lived on the territory of the Apennine Peninsula, except for the Etruscans, Ligurians, Celts and Greeks). The Italian languages, in turn, are part of the family Indo European languages. Initially, Latin was the language of a small tribe - the Latins, living in the center of the Apennine Peninsula. This information may be of interest when taking a closer look at the Latin alphabet.
Origins of the Latin alphabet
Influence of the Etruscan alphabet
The Etruscan culture was well known to the Latins. In the 9-8 centuries BC, the relatively small territory of Latium bordered on the north with the then significant territory of the Etruscan tribe (they are also Tusks or Tosks, now the Italian province of Tuscany). At a time when the culture of the Latins was just emerging, the culture of the Etruscans was already experiencing its heyday.
The Latins borrowed quite a lot from the Etruscans. The Etruscan writing had a right-to-left direction, so for convenience, the reverse (compared to the usual Latin) spelling of letters was used (naturally, this was the original spelling; we use the reverse version).
Influence of the Greek alphabet
The Greek alphabet also made a significant contribution to the formation of modern Latin. It is worth mentioning that the Etruscan alphabet was partially borrowed from Western Greek. But direct borrowing from Greek into Latin began later, when the Romans, in their characteristic style, began a thorough acquaintance with Greek culture. Greek names and names contained sounds that were not characteristic of Roman phonetics; there were no letters in the Latin language to write them, so Greek letters were also transferred to the Latin alphabet. This is the origin of the letters "x", "y", "z".
Ancient Greek inscriptions were also made not only from left to right, but also from right to left and boustrophedon (the Greeks gave the name to this type of writing), therefore in the ancient Greek language there were both direct and reverse variants of writing letters at the same time.
Influence of Phoenician consonantal writing
The Phoenicians are considered the creators of the first phonetic writing. The Phoenician alphabet was a syllabary alphabet in which one symbol denoted the combination of one consonant sound with any vowel (It is often said that the Phoenicians wrote down only consonants, but this assumption is formally incorrect). The Phoenicians traveled a lot, settled in more and more new places... and their writing traveled and took root with them. Gradually, spreading in different directions, the symbols of the Phoenician alphabet were transformed, on the one hand, into the letters of the Greek and then the Latin alphabet, and on the other, into the letters of Hebrew (and other northern Semitic dialects).
Comparative table of symbols of related languages (Commentary see below in the text)
The conclusions drawn from the results of comparing all these languages are different. The issue of continuity has not been completely resolved, however, the similarity of independent ancient languages suggests that there may have been one progenitor language. Many researchers tend to look for it in Canaan, a semi-mythical state that the Phoenicians considered their homeland.
History of the Latin alphabet
The first Latin inscriptions available to modern researchers date back to the 7th century BC. Since that time, it has been customary to talk about archaic Latin. The archaic alphabet consists of 21 letters. The Greek letters theta, phi and psi were used to write the numbers 100, 1000, 50.
Having become a censor in 312 BC, Appius Claudius Caecus introduced differences in the writing of the letters “r” and “s” and abolished the letter “z”, and the sound denoted by this letter was replaced by [p]. Closely related to this event is one of the basic laws of phonetics of the Latin language - the law of rhotacism.
After the abolition of the letter "z", the Latin alphabet of the classical period contains 20 letters.
In the 1st century BC, the letter "z" was borrowed again, and with it the letter "y". In addition, the letter “g” was finally recognized (before this, both sounds: voiced - [g] and voiceless - [k] were designated by one letter - “c”). Of course, there were some disputes, but it is generally accepted that Spurius Carvilius Ruga was the first to use it in 235 BC, however, at that time it was not included in the alphabet.
The alphabet began to consist of 23 letters.
Another an important event in the history of the Latin alphabet falls on the 1st century AD. Using the practice of replacing the most frequent combinations letters with one symbol, which was widespread in Greece, the future emperor Claudius (since 41 AD being a censor) introduced three new letters, later called “Claudian”: reverse digamma, antisigma and half ha.
The reverse digamma was to be used to indicate the sound [in:].
Antisigma - to denote combinations of bs and ps, similar to the Greek letter psi.
Half ha - to indicate the sound between [i] and [u].
They never made it into the alphabet.
Nevertheless:
- The codes for these characters are included in Unicode: u+2132, u+214e - reverse digamma, u+2183, u+2184 - antisigma, u+2c75, u+2c76 - half ha.
- The letters “y” and “v”, which were completely defined in the alphabet somewhat later, became analogues of two of the three Claudian letters, which indicates the validity of the proposal of the future emperor.
Much later, the issue with pairs of letters “i” - “j”, “v” - “u” was resolved. Both pairs were used in writing before, and denoted two pairs of sounds ([i] - [th], [v] - [y]), but it was not clearly defined which spelling denotes which sound. The separation of the first couple supposedly occurred in the 16th century AD, and the second in the 18th century (although some researchers suggest that this happened simultaneously for both couples).
The modern version of the Latin alphabet, consisting of 25 letters, was formalized during the Renaissance (hence the assumption of the separation of "v" and "u" in the 16th century, since they are both contained in this variant). This event is closely connected with the name of Petrus Ramus.
The digraph "vv", especially common in Northern Europe, became the letter "w". The sound denoted by this letter came from the Germanic languages after the fall of the Roman Empire, so many experts do not include the letter “w” in the Latin alphabet or include it conditionally.
Online service: text transliteration- writing Russian characters in Latin letters.
On the transliteration of Russian names and surnames
When filling out registration forms, questionnaires, and various types of documents (for example, a passport or visa), you have to write your last name, first name, and address in Latin (English) letters. This service allows automate translation ( transliteration) Russians letters in English.
How to write your last name and first name correctly in English? How to correctly name a Russian website in English letters? Exist various systems or rules for transliteration of first and last names (transliteration of Russian words). They are based on the process of simply replacing letters of the Russian alphabet with the corresponding letters or combinations of letters of the English alphabet (see below). The difference between the transliteration systems of first and last names is observed when translating some letters, for example E, Ё, Ъ, ь and diphthongs (combinations of a vowel and J).
|
In order to translate english letters V Russians Paste the text into the top input field and click the "Make" button. As a result, in the lower input field you will get a translation of the Russian text into a transcript (Russian words in English letters).
Note. Since March 16, 2010, when issuing a foreign passport, new rules for transliteration of the Cyrillic alphabet for the Russian alphabet are used. The result may not match the old name, for example, on a plastic card. In order for the name to be entered correctly in the international passport (as before), that is, so that it matches the name on the credit card or driver’s license, you must additionally submit a corresponding application. Example: Julia new system will be Iuliia, most likely you will want Julia or Yuliya (which, in my opinion, is more harmonious).
When issuing a driver's license, a transliteration system different from a foreign passport is used, similar to the system for a US visa. At the request of the owner of the record in Latin in driver's licenses can
- A a(A)*
- B b(b)
- C c- before “e”, “i”, “y”, “ae”, “oe” is pronounced (ts), in other cases - (k)
- E e- (uh)*
- F f- (f)
- G g- (G)
- I i- (And); (th) - before vowels.
- K k- (k) - rarely found in Greek borrowings.
- Ll- (l)
- Nn- (n)
- O o- (O)
- P p- (P)
- R r- (R)
- Ss- (With); (h) - between vowels.
- T t- in the combination “ti” + vowel it is read (qi) + vowel, if there is no “s”, “t”, “x” before “ti”.
- Vv- (V)
- X x- (ks)
- Y y- (and) - in Greek borrowings.
D d- (d)
H h- (X)
M m- (m)
Q q- (To)
U u- (y)
Z z- (h) - in Greek borrowings.
Diphthongs, pronunciation features:
- ae- (uh)
- oh- (yo [yo]) - something like that
- ph- (f) - words of Greek origin.
- th- (t) - words of Greek origin.
- rh- (r) - words of Greek origin.
ch- (X)
Latin alphabet in human history
Human civilization has already reached high level, and we practically don’t think about where we got these or those things that we use every day, it seems that it has always been this way. Let's not talk about the latest technological progress now, let's think about more global things, such as language and writing. Every day on store signs, product packaging, price tags on things, we encounter inscriptions on foreign languages, most often it is English, which has rightfully won its international status. In the last decade, the prevalence of the English language has erased all boundaries; it has become vital for those who want to make a successful career. Even those who do not speak this language can easily read the names of popular brands, and all thanks to its incredible popularization. The Russian language uses the Cyrillic script for writing, and it is also used by some other Slavic peoples, such as the Bulgarians and Serbs. But more than half of European languages use Latin alphabet. These simple Latin letters seem to have been with us for an eternity. But both language and writing are always the result of centuries of work by the people. It was the advent of writing that made it possible for ancient civilizations to leave memories to their descendants. Without writing, there would be no literature, and scientific and technological progress would be impossible. How did writing originate? What gave ancient people the idea of how to record the necessary information? Nomadic tribes and warring parties had no need for writing. Their main task was to conquer a large territory for their tribe. But when the tribe began to lead a sedentary lifestyle, then the need for writing appeared. Probably, it was in one of these moments of calm that the ancient Phoenicians began to think about how to graphically display the necessary information. It was the Phoenicians who owned the first alphabet in human history, which became the progenitor of the Latin alphabet. It was the Phoenician alphabet that gave the traditional order of letters. Based on the Phoenician alphabet, the Greek alphabet developed, and it was in it that vowel letters appeared for the first time, which were borrowed from Semitic languages. For thousands of years, literacy was the privilege of the upper strata of society and the clergy; only a select few mastered this science. But it was the Ancient Greeks who were able to bring schools closer to the people, removing them from the influence of religious priests. And giving the opportunity to receive education from childhood. But Greek civilization fell under the onslaught of the Roman conquerors, who received the alphabet and writing as trophies. It was the Greek alphabet and writing system that formed the basis of Latin, the language of the Ancient Roman Empire. Over the millennia, the alphabet has been transformed, for example, initially there were 23 letters in the Latin alphabet, only in the Middle Ages, three more new letters were added (J, U and W), and the alphabet acquired such a familiar look. At the dawn of Latin writing, they wrote without separating words with spaces, and did not yet use punctuation marks. The belligerence of the Romans expanded the empire in all directions, in the end, even the north of Europe was conquered, and the Romans crossed the English Channel. Encampments of Roman legions are found in England, France, Syria and Judea, and even in Africa, near Tunisia and Algeria. The main base of the Roman Empire, of course, remained Italy. Many tribes that inhabited Europe at that time, in order to survive, tried to enter into an alliance with the Romans, such as the Germans and Goths. Such alliances were mostly long-term. Latin began to be used as a language of international communication. It was the emergence of Christianity, and its formation in Ancient Rome, that strengthened the position of Latin. Latin became the official language of the religion, which very quickly spread throughout Europe, displacing pagan cults. And when Christianity already became the official religion of Rome, the role of Latin strengthened, because now it is the official language of the church. And the role of the church in the political system in European countries cannot be underestimated. Latin is used for correspondence by diplomats and heads of state, it becomes the official language of science, and it is in Latin that the works of scientists and theological treatises are published. And the Renaissance, which swept like a fresh spring wind across Europe tormented by the Inquisition, also chose Latin as its language. The great Leonardo da Vinci, Isaac Newton, Galileo Galilei and Keppler wrote their works in Latin. In the spread of Latin writing, an important role was also played by the fact that many nations chose the Latin alphabet to write their native languages, so as not to invent new letters, but to use those already familiar to everyone. In its development, Latin writing went through many stages, the font was transformed, as architectural styles changed. In various historical periods, minuscule Roman italics and Roman capital letters, uncial letters and semi-uncial letters, Merovingian and Visigothic scripts, Old Italic letters and Gothic, rotunda and Swabian letters appeared. Many of these fonts are still used for decorative purposes. This is exactly how the evolution of writing took place, introducing new signs, styles, and methods of writing. The topic of the emergence of writing is very interesting and multifaceted; it is closely related to the development of human civilization with historical and cultural events. It is through the example of writing that one can establish a historical connection, seemingly completely different nations. Transformation of primitive rock paintings, first into drawn symbols, and then into individual letters, which corresponded to a specific sound. The pinnacle of this process was the invention of printing. This allowed science and culture to develop at a new level.
