3.1 Sensation as a cognitive process
3.2 Perception
3.3 Attention.
3.4 Memory
3.5 Types and processes of thinking
3.6 Imagination
3.7 The role of speech in human life
Mental processes that help form images environment, as well as images of the organism itself and its internal environment, are called cognitive mental processes. It is cognitive mental processes that provide a person with knowledge about the world around him and about himself.
Occurring simultaneously, these processes interact with each other so smoothly and so imperceptibly for us that at any given moment we perceive and understand the world not as a jumble of colors, shades, shapes, sounds, smells that need to be understood in order to establish what is happening. something, and not as a picture depicted on some screen, but precisely as a world located outside of us, filled with light, sounds, smells, objects, inhabited by people, having a perspective and clearly perceived, as well as hidden, not perceived at the moment moment plan.
Let us now consider in more detail those basic cognitive mental processes that are involved in constructing images of the surrounding world.
Sensation as a cognitive process
Feel- this is a reflection in human consciousness of individual properties of phenomena and objects that directly affect our senses.
Sense organs are those mechanisms through which information about
the world around us enters the cerebral cortex (CMC). With the help of sensations, the main external signs of objects and phenomena are reflected (color, shape, taste, sound, etc.), as well as the state of internal organs.
Physiological basis of sensations is a special activity
nervous apparatus - analyzer. The analyzer consists of:
1. Peripheral department, or receptor. More than two thousand years ago
The ancient Greek scientist and thinker Aristotle identified five receptors: vision, hearing, smell, touch and taste. Receptors transform the energy of external influence into a nerve impulse.
2. Conductive afferent(to the cerebral cortex) and efferent
(from the cerebral cortex) nerves that connect the peripheral part of the analyzer with its central part.
3. Central cortical sections (brain end), where the processing of nerve impulses coming from peripheral sections occurs.
Types of sensations
Sensations can be classified depending on the nature of the stimuli affecting a given analyzer and the sensations that arise.
Z amazing sensations are caused by the influence of electromagnetic waves emitted by physical bodies on the visual analyzer.
Auditory sensations reflect the impact sound waves, created by vibrations of bodies.
Olfactory sensations is the result of the influence of odorous substances on the peripheral ends of the analyzer, embedded in the mucosa
the membrane of the nose.
Taste sensations are a reflection of the chemical properties of flavoring substances dissolved in saliva or water.
Tactile sensations are detected when touching objects in the outside world.
Motor sensations reflect the movement and position of the body itself, and internal sensations– internal state of the body.
Based on the location of the receptors, all of the listed sensations can be
divided into exteroceptive, interoceptive and proprioceptive.
Exteroceptive– arising from the influence of external stimuli on receptors located on the surface of the body: visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, tactile sensations.
Proprioceptive– reflect the movements of our body, since their receptors
located in the internal organs and tissues of the body and provide information about the position of the body and its movements.
Interoceptive – internal sensations give an idea of the state
internal organs, feelings of hunger, thirst, pain, etc.
The quality of sensations of all kinds depends on analyzer sensitivity
the appropriate type. Our senses differ from each other in varying degrees of sensitivity to the phenomena they display. High sensitivity is inherent, for example, in the visual and auditory analyzers, while the sensitivity of the tactile analyzer is quite low.
The minimum strength of any stimulus was experimentally established, the action of which produces a barely noticeable sensation. This minimum stimulus strength is called lower absolute threshold of sensitivity.
The lower the value of this threshold, the higher analyzer sensitivity. Upper threshold- this is the maximum strength of the stimulus, beyond which the irritation ceases to be felt.
Sense organs are capable of changing their characteristics, adapting to changing conditions. This ability is called adaptation of sensations. Thus, the sensitivity of the visual analyzer sharply decreases with intense light stimulation, when a person enters a brightly lit space from a dimly lit room. And, conversely, with dark adaptation, eye sensitivity increases:
When moving from a brightly lit room into the dark, a person initially sees nothing and only after some time gradually begins to distinguish the outlines of the objects surrounding him.
The speed and completeness of adaptation of different sensory systems is not the same: high adaptability is noted in the sense of smell (you get used to an unpleasant smell), in tactile sensations (a person quickly ceases to notice the pressure of clothing on the body), and visual and auditory adaptation occurs much more slowly. Pain sensations have the least degree of adaptation: pain is a signal of dangerous disturbances in the functioning of the body, and it is clear that rapid adaptation of pain sensations could threaten its death.
The interaction of sensations is manifested in sensitization. Unlike adaptation, which in some cases represents an increase in sensitivity, and in others, on the contrary, a decrease in sensitivity, sensitization is always an increase in sensitivity. Often, if the activity of one of the analyzers is disrupted, an increase in the sensitivity of others can be observed. A kind of compensation occurs: the person has lost
hearing, but his vision and the functioning of other analyzers are enhanced. In addition, sensitization can be achieved as a result of special exercises.
Perception
Perception- this is the process of reflecting objects and phenomena of reality in all the diversity of their properties and aspects that directly affect the senses.
Sitting down at a desk, we see its color, rectangular shape, feel the hardness of the wood, the smooth surface, that is, through sensation we determine the properties of the desk.
At the same time, we have a holistic image of the desk with all its properties - design, color, hardness of the material, etc. We can say that perception is expressed by a set of figurative sensations. Moreover, it is not reduced to the sum of individual sensations, but represents a qualitatively new stage of sensory cognition with such inherent features as objectivity, integrity, structure, constancy, and meaningfulness.
Properties of perception
Objectivity perception is defined as the attribution of information received from the external world to the objects of this world. We see not just white, but white snow, White flower, a white coat, we hear the sounds of a human voice, birdsong, we perceive the taste of candy, etc. So, objectivity is formed only when the analyzers interact with the objects themselves.
Integrity and inextricably linked with it structure perceptions mean that the psyche of a normal person is tuned to perceive objects, and not individual lines, spots, etc.
Constancy there is independence of the perception of the properties of objects from the conditions in which this perception occurs.
Thanks to this property, a person perceives others
objects as relatively constant in shape, size, color, etc. The lecturer sees the faces of everyone sitting in the audience approximately the same in size, although the images of the faces of students in the last desks should be significantly smaller than those sitting in the front rows. An interesting fact reported by steeplejacks. It turns out they
At first they see people and cars on the ground very small, but soon constancy is restored and all objects are perceived as they should be, that is, of normal size.
The perception of an object is closely related to its meaningfulness, understanding it
essence. In other words, perception always presupposes some interpretation of data received by the senses about objects and phenomena of the external world. In perception there is always a figure and a ground, although objects can be very different, including those that are not divided into figure and ground. In addition, they can change places. This is the basis for many visual illusions and so-called ambiguous drawings, in which the figure and the background are perceived alternately. (drawing “two vases”)
We see either two profiles or one vase. See both of these at the same time
figures is impossible. One of them is perceived only as a background. In this figure, the selection of the object of perception is associated with its comprehension.
Dependence of perception on content mental life the person was named apperception. Thanks to apperception, you can control the process of perception, creating certain settings for perception. Research has shown that attitude can even determine the perception of a person's height. So, various groups students of one of the universities were presented with the same person, but each time he was assigned new titles and titles. When this person was introduced as a student, his height was determined to be on average 171 cm; when he was named assistant of the department
psychology, then his height increased to 176 cm; with the rank of “Assistant Professor,” his height exceeded 180 cm; and the professor’s height became 184 cm.
Perception disturbance
With sudden physical or emotional fatigue, sometimes there is an increase in susceptibility to ordinary external stimuli. Daylight suddenly blinds, the color of surrounding objects becomes unusually bright. The sounds are deafening, the slamming of a door sounds like a gunshot, the smells are perceived sharply and irritate. These changes in perception are called hypersthesia. The opposite condition is hypoesthesia, which is expressed in a decrease in susceptibility to external stimuli and is associated with mental fatigue.
Hallucinations- these are perceptions that arise without the presence of a real object (visions, ghosts, imaginary sounds, voices, smells). Hallucinations are a consequence of the fact that perception is saturated not with external actual impressions, but with internal images. When people hallucinate, they actually see, hear, and smell, rather than imagine or imagine. For the hallucinating person, subjective sensory sensations are as valid as those emanating from the objective world.
It is necessary to distinguish from hallucinations illusions, i.e. erroneous perception of real things or phenomena. The obligatory presence of a genuine object, although perceived erroneously, is the main feature of illusions. Illusions can be affective, verbal, or pareidolic.
Affective(affect is short-term, strong emotional arousal) illusions are most often caused by fear or an anxious depressed mood. In this state, even clothes hanging on a hanger can seem like a burglar.
Verbal illusions consist in a false perception of the content of actually occurring conversations of others; it seems to the person that these conversations contain hints of some of his unseemly actions, bullying, hidden threats against him.
Very interesting and indicative are pareidolic illusions, usually caused by a decrease in the tone of mental activity and general passivity. Ordinary patterns on wallpaper, cracks on the ceiling, various light and shadows are perceived as bright pictures, fantastic monsters.
The most famous illusions visual perception, so-called geometric illusions. Most geometric illusions can be viewed as either a distortion in the perception of magnitude or a distortion in the perception of the direction of lines. An example of the segment length illusion is the Müller-Lyer illusion: two lines of equal length, one of which ends in converging wedges and the other in diverging wedges, are perceived by a person as unequal in length (draw on the board). Moreover, the effect of the illusion is so stable that it occurs even if a person knows about the reason for its occurrence.
Attention
Any human activity requires concentration and direction, that is, attention - the most important condition for the flow of all mental processes in a person.
Attention is called the focus of mental activity on certain objects or phenomena of reality in abstraction from everything else. Attention is the selection of an object or phenomenon of reality from many others surrounding a person.
Types of attention
Attention can be involuntary (unintentional) and voluntary (intentional).
Involuntary attention arises without any intention and without advance
set goal. It is caused by the characteristics of the stimuli acting on a person, for example, the strength of the stimulus (strong sound or bright light); stimulus contrast (large object among small ones, light among dark ones); the significance of the stimulus for a given person (for example, a child crying for a mother among noise), etc.
But a person’s involuntary attention also largely depends on his state and well-being, mood and experiences, expectations and dreams, needs and interests.
Voluntary attention arises intentionally, as a result of consciously
set goal. It arises in a person and develops in the process of labor, since without it it is impossible to carry out and maintain labor activity. Such attention is possible with a clear goal setting, real tasks, interest, moral support, material equipment, support from management and others. Moreover, the maintenance of voluntary attention depends on the awareness of duty and responsibilities; understanding the purpose and objectives of the activity being performed; sustainability of interests; usual working conditions; the presence of favorable conditions for carrying out activities.
Some psychologists also highlight post-voluntary attention, which combines some features of voluntary and involuntary attention.
Attention has some features that different people appear to varying degrees. So, properties:
1. Concentration(concentration) – highlighting an object with the consciousness and directing attention to it.
2. Sustainability– greater resistance to distractions, thanks to which a person can be focused on some object or action for a long time.
3. Intensity- quality that determines the effectiveness of perception,
thinking, memory and clarity of consciousness in general.
4. Attention span– the number of objects perceived simultaneously (for an adult – from 4 to 6 objects, for a child – no more than 2 – 3).
5. Distribution– the ability to simultaneously monitor several objects or perform various actions.
6. Switching– conscious movement of attention to a new object.
Memory
Everything that happens in our psyche, in some sense, remains in it. Sometimes forever. As a trace of the past, its sign, image.
Memory is the process of remembering, storing and subsequent
the individual's reproduction of his experience.
The ability to constantly accumulate information is the most important feature of the psyche; it is universal in nature and in many cases is realized automatically, almost unconsciously. As an example, we can cite a true story that has become a classic in psychology. A completely illiterate woman fell ill and, deliriously, shouted Latin and Greek sayings, the meaning of which she clearly did not understand. It turned out that as a child she served under a pastor who loved to memorize quotes from ancient classics out loud. The woman involuntarily remembered them forever, something she had no idea about before her illness.
All living beings have memory. The brain not only stores our knowledge about the world around us in memory, but also has the ability to reproduce this knowledge at our request, to establish an associative connection between events, since both memory and associations are closely related to each other.
Types of memory :
motor (motor)– manifests itself in memorization and reproduction
movements and their systems (it underlies the development and formation of physical dexterity, dexterity in work, sports, walking, writing).
emotional– this is a reaction to experienced feelings (for example, positive and negative feelings do not disappear without a trace, but are remembered and reproduced); it influences the formation of personality and allows you to regulate your behavior depending on previously experienced feelings.
figurative– preservation and reproduction of images previously perceived
objects and phenomena of reality; it can be visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory, gustatory; reaches its highest development among artists, musicians, writers, tasters, when the accuracy of reproducing an object depends on its consolidation in memory;
verbal-logical (verbal)- the highest type of memory inherent only to humans, is expressed in memorizing and reproducing thoughts, words and expressions. With its help, an information base of human intelligence is formed.
voluntary and involuntary; their difference in the goals and methods of memorization and reproduction (for example, voluntary memory is active when a special goal is set - to remember, and volitional efforts are consciously made for this; and involuntary memory is more often when such a special goal is not set, and this process proceeds passively, without volitional efforts).
According to the time it takes to memorize the material, memory is divided into short-term
long-term, operational and intermediate. Any information first enters short-term memory, which ensures that information presented once is remembered for a short time (5–7 minutes), after which the information can be forgotten completely, or go into long-term memory, but subject to repetition 1–2 times.
Short-term memory(CP) is limited in volume, with a single
When presented, the CP contains an average of 7 ± 2 pieces of information. This is the magic formula for human memory, i.e., on average, a person can remember from 5 to 9 words, numbers, figures, pictures, etc. at one time. The main thing is to ensure that these “elements” are more information-rich over time. counting grouping, combining numbers, words into a single holistic “image”. The capacity of short-term memory varies from person to person.
Using it, you can predict the success of training using the formula:
Volume of CP/2 + 1 = predicted educational grade.
Long-term memory(DP) ensures long-term storage of information.
It comes in two types:
1. DP with conscious access (i.e. a person can voluntarily extract,
remember the necessary information).
2. DP is closed (a person in natural conditions does not have access to it, but only through hypnosis, when irritating parts of the brain, can he gain access to it and update in all details images, experiences, pictures of his whole life).
RAM manifests itself during execution and maintenance
a certain activity, which occurs due to the storage of information coming from both the CP and the DP necessary to perform actions.
Intermediate memory ensures that information is retained for
several hours. It accumulates during the day, and the body uses the time of night sleep to clear intermediate memory, categorize information received over the past day, and transfer it to long-term memory. After sleep, intermediate memory is again ready to receive new information. In a person who sleeps less than three hours a day, intermediate memory does not have time to be cleared, as a result, the performance of mental and computational operations is disrupted.
Attention and short-term memory decrease, errors appear in speech and actions.
Long-term memory with conscious access is characterized by a pattern of forgetting: everything unnecessary, secondary, as well as a certain percentage of necessary information is forgotten. To reduce forgetting, it is necessary to perform a number of operations.
Firstly, to understand, comprehend the information (mechanically learned, but not fully understood, it is forgotten quickly and almost completely - forgetting curve 1a (Fig. 2.6).
Secondly, repeat the information (the first repetition is necessary 40 minutes after memorization, since after an hour only 50% of the mechanically memorized information remains in the memory). It is necessary to repeat more often in the first days after memorization, because during this period the losses from forgetting are maximum. It is better to act like this: on the first day - 2 - 3 repetitions, on the second - 1 - 2, from the third to the seventh - one repetition each, after that
– one repetition with an interval of 7 – 10 days. Remember that 30 repetitions over the course of a month is more effective than 100 repetitions per day. Therefore, systematic, without overload, studying, memorizing in small portions throughout the semester with periodic repetitions after 10 days is much more effective than concentrated memorization of a large amount of information in a short session, causing mental and mental overload and leading to almost complete forgetting of information a week after the session .
Rice. 2.6.
Basic memory processes– memorization, recognition, reproduction,
remembering and, accordingly, forgetting.
Memorization– (the activity of memory begins with it), consolidation of images and impressions that arise in consciousness under the influence of objects and phenomena of reality in the process of sensation and perception. It can be unintentional (involuntary) and intentional (voluntary).
Recognition– re-perception of an object previously perceived.
Playback– images fixed in memory are updated (revitalized) without relying on the secondary perception of certain objects,
that is, the image (object) is revived in its absence. It can be voluntary or involuntary.
Recall– the most active form of reproduction associated with
brain tension and requiring certain volitional efforts. It will be more successful if the fact is not reproduced in isolation, but in connection with other facts, events, circumstances and actions preserved in memory (for example, remembering a lost book is always associated with where the person was before and reproduces the sequence of events, which makes it easier this process).
Forgetting– the process of gradual (over time) disappearance of what was in memory. It can be complete, partial, long-term, short-term, temporary. It should be remembered that the process of forgetting proceeds unevenly: first faster, then slower.
Memory efficiency depends on a number of conditions, these include:
1. Memorization goals (how firmly, for how long a person wants to remember).
If the goal is to learn in order to pass an exam, then soon after it a lot will be forgotten. If the goal is to learn for a long time, for future professional activity, then the information is rarely forgotten.
2. Memorization techniques. They are like this:
Mechanical verbatim repetition. Mechanical works
memory, a lot of effort and time are spent, but the results are poor. Mechanical
memory is based on repeating material without comprehending it;
Logical retelling, which includes: logical comprehension of the material, systematization, highlighting the main logical components of information, retelling in your own words. Logical memory (semantic) works. It is based on establishing semantic connections in the memorized material.
The efficiency of logical memory is 20 times higher than mechanical memory;
Figurative memorization techniques (translation of information into images, graphs,
diagrams, pictures). In this case, figurative memory is involved. It happens
different types: visual, auditory, motor-motor, gustatory,
tactile, olfactory, emotional.
Mnemonic memorization techniques(to make it easier to remember). Among them:
1. Formation of semantic phrases from the initial letters of memorized information (“Every hunter wants to know where the pheasant sits” - about the sequence of colors in the spectrum: red, orange, etc.).
2. Rhythmization - translation of information into poems, songs, into lines connected
a certain rhythm or rhyme.
3. Memorizing long terms using consonant words (for example, for foreign terms they look for Russian words that sound similar; so as to remember medical concepts“supination” and “pronation”, use the consonant humorous phrase “carried soup and spilled”).
4. Finding bright, unusual images, pictures that are connected using the “connection method” with information that needs to be remembered. For example, we need to remember a set of words: pencil, glasses, chandelier, chair, star, beetle. This is easy to do if you imagine them as “characters” of a bright, fantastic cartoon, where a slender dandy in “glasses” - a “pencil” - approaches a plump lady, a “chandelier”, at which a “chair” is playfully looking, on whose upholstery sparkles “ stars". Such an invented cartoon
difficult to forget or confuse. To increase the efficiency of memorization using this method, you should greatly distort the proportions (a huge “bug”); imagine objects in active action (“pencil” is suitable); increase the number of items (hundreds of “stars”); swap the functions of objects (“chair” to “chandelier”). Try to memorize a list of words in this way, spending 3 seconds on each: grass, house, peacock, dress, glasses, paperclip, nail, glue. Managed?
5. Visualization method: figuratively, mentally imagine in different details
(“see”) memorized information.
6. Cicero's method. Imagine walking around your room, where everything is familiar to you. Place the information you need to remember in your mind as you move around the room. You will be able to remember everything again by imagining your room - everything will be in the places where you placed it during the previous “walk-through”.
7. When memorizing figures and numbers, you can use the following techniques:
Identify the arithmetic relationship between groups of digits in a number:
for example, in the phone number 35-89-54 the dependency is 89 = 35 + 54;
Highlight familiar numbers: for example, in the number 859314, highlight 85 – year
birth of a brother, 314 – the first digits of the number “pi”, etc.;
“catch method” – replacing numbers with images: for example, 0 – circle, 1 – pencil,
2 – swan, 3 – pitchfork, 4 – sail, 5 – star, 6 – beetle, 7 – gallows, 8 – sand
clock, etc. You can replace numbers with letters and words. For example, replacement
numbers 1, 2, 3, 8 with the last consonant letters in the name of these numbers: 1 - one - N, 2 - two - B, 3 - three - R. And replace the numbers 4,5, 6, 7,9 with the initial consonants in them name: 4 – H, 5 – P, 6 – W, 7 – S, 9 – D.
Types and processes of thinking
Thinking– this is the most generalized and indirect form of mental reflection, establishing connections and relationships between cognizable objects. There are different types of thinking.
Visual-effective thinking relies on the direct perception of objects, the real transformation of the situation in the process of actions with objects.
Visual-figurative thinking characterized by reliance on ideas and images. Its functions are related to the presentation of situations and changes in them that a person wants to achieve as a result of his activities that transform the situation. Its very important feature is the composition of unusual, incredible combinations of objects and their properties.
Unlike the visual-effective, here the situation is transformed only in terms of the image.
Verbal and logical thinking– a type of thinking carried out using logical operations with concepts. It is formed over a long period (from 7–8 to 18–20 years) in the process of mastering concepts and logical operations during training. There are also theoretical and practical, intuitive and analytical, realistic and autistic, productive and reproductive thinking.
Theoretical And practical thinking differs in the type of problems being solved and the resulting structural and dynamic features. Theoretical is the knowledge of laws and rules. The main task of practical thinking is to prepare a physical transformation of reality: setting a goal, creating a plan, project, scheme. Practical thinking provides very limited opportunities for testing hypotheses, all this makes it sometimes more complex than theoretical thinking.
Also shared intuitive And analytical (logical) thinking. In this case, they are usually based on three characteristics: temporal (time of the process), structural (division into stages), level of occurrence (awareness or unconsciousness).
Analytical thinking unfolds in time, has clearly defined stages, and is represented in the human mind. Intuitive thinking is characterized by rapidity, the absence of clearly defined stages, and is minimally conscious.
Realistic thinking is directed mainly to the external world, is regulated by logical laws, and autistic associated with the realization of a person’s desires (who among us has not presented what we wanted as reality). The term is sometimes used egocentric thinking, it is characterized by the inability to accept another person's point of view.
It is important to distinguish productive (creative) And reproductive (reproducing) thinking based on the degree of novelty of the resulting result of mental activity.
The structure of the thought process of solving a problem can be represented as follows:
1. Awareness of the problem situation.
2. Statement of the problem.
3. Limitation of the search area.
4. Constructing a hypothesis.
5. Hypothesis testing.
6. Evaluation of actions and results.
Highlight basic mental operations: analysis, comparison, synthesis,
generalization, abstraction, etc.:
analysis– mental operation of dividing a complex object into
its constituent parts or characteristics;
comparison– a mental operation based on establishing similarities and differences between objects;
synthesis– a mental operation that allows one to mentally move from parts to the whole in a single process;
generalization- mental association of objects and phenomena according to their common and
essential features;
abstraction(distraction) – a mental operation based on
highlighting the essential properties and connections of an object and abstracting from others,
insignificant.
Basic forms of logical thinking are a concept, a judgment, an inference.
Concept– a form of thinking that reflects essential properties, connections and
relationships between objects and phenomena, expressed in a word or group of words. Concepts can be general and individual, concrete and abstract.
Judgment– a form of thinking that reflects connections between objects and phenomena; affirmation or denial of something. Judgments can be true or false.
Inference- a form of thinking in which a certain conclusion is drawn based on several judgments. Inferences are distinguished between inductive, deductive, and analogical. Induction– logical conclusion in the process of thinking from the particular to the general.
Deduction– logical conclusion in the process of thinking from the general to the specific. Analogy– logical conclusion in the process of thinking from particular to particular (based on some elements of similarity).
Individual differences in the mental activity of people are associated with such qualities of thinking as breadth, depth and independence of thinking, flexibility of thought, speed and criticality of the mind.
Ways to activate thinking. Now let's look at how we can
promote the development of thinking.
First of all, it is necessary to note the special role of self-organization, awareness of the techniques and rules of mental activity. A person must also manage such stages of thinking as setting a problem, creating optimal motivation, regulating the direction of involuntary associations, maximizing the inclusion of both figurative and symbolic components, taking advantage of conceptual thinking, and reducing excessive criticality when assessing the result. All this
allows you to activate the thought process and make it more effective. Passion, interest in the problem, optimal motivation are the most important factors in the productivity of thinking.
A number of factors hinder a successful thought process: inertia,
stereotypical thinking; excessive adherence to the use of familiar solution methods, which makes it difficult to look at the problem in a new way; fear of mistakes, fear of criticism, fear of “being stupid”, excessive criticism of one’s decisions; mental and muscle tension, etc.
Imagination
Along with perception, memory and thinking, imagination plays an important role in human activity. In the process of reflecting the surrounding world, a person, together with the perception of what is affecting him at the moment, or the visual representation of what influenced him before, creates new images.
Imagination is the mental process of creating something new in the form of an image,
ideas or ideas. A person can mentally imagine something that he did not perceive or do in the past, he may have images of objects and phenomena that he has not encountered before. Imagination is unique to man and is a necessary condition for his work activity. Imagination is always a certain departure from
reality. But in any case, its source is objective reality.
Types of imagination
There are several types of imagination, the main ones being:
passive And active.
Passive, in turn, is divided into arbitrary
(daydreaming, daydreaming) and involuntary(hypnotic state, fantasy in dreams).
Active imagination always aimed at solving a creative or personal problem. A person operates with fragments, units of specific information in a certain area, combining them in various ways.
Recreating imagination - one of the types of active when occurs
construction of new images, ideas in accordance with stimulation perceived from the outside in the form of verbal messages, diagrams, conventional images, signs, etc.
Despite the fact that its products are completely new, not previously
images perceived by a person, it is based on previous experience.
Anticipatory imagination underlies a very important human ability: to anticipate future events, to foresee the results of one’s actions, etc. The younger a person, the stronger and more vividly his imagination is oriented into the distance. In older and older people, the imagination is more connected with events of the past.
Creative imagination- a type of imagination when a person independently creates new images and ideas that are valuable to other people or society as a whole, and which are embodied (“crystallized”) into specific original products of activity. Creative imagination is a necessary component and basis of all types of human creative activity.
Passive imagination subject to internal, subjective factors.
In the process of such passive imagination, an unreal, imaginary satisfaction of any need or desire is realized. This is the difference from realistic thinking, aimed at real, and not imaginary, satisfaction of needs. Passive imagination includes fantasy - a type of imagination that produces images that have little correspondence with reality. Daydreaming is a fantasy associated with desires, most often a somewhat idealized future.
A dream differs from a daydream in that it is more realistic and more closely related to reality. Dreams are passive and involuntary forms of imagination, which reflect many vital human needs.
1.Sensory-perceptual cognitive processes. Sensation and perception
2.Integrative cognitive processes. Memory, representation, attention, imagination.
The mental processes by which images of the environment are formed, as well as images of the organism itself and its internal environment, are called cognitive mental processes.
Cognitive processes - sensation, perception, thinking, imagination and memory - form the information base, the orienting basis of the psyche. It is cognitive mental processes that provide a person with knowledge about the world around him and about himself.
Cognizing and transforming the world, a person reveals stable, natural connections between phenomena. Regularities, internal connections of phenomena are reflected in our consciousness indirectly - in the external signs of phenomena, a person recognizes signs of internal, stable relationships. Noticing connections between phenomena, establishing the universal nature of these connections, a person masters the world, rationally organizes his interaction with it, he carries out mental activity - a generalized orientation in the world.
1. Sensory-perceptual cognitive processes. Sensation and perception.
FEELING
Sensation is a mental cognitive process of reflection in human consciousness of individual properties, qualities of objects and phenomena that directly affect our senses.
A sense organ is an anatomical and physiological apparatus located on the periphery of the body or in the internal organs; specialized to receive exposure to certain stimuli from the external and internal environment.
The analyzer is a complex nervous mechanism that performs a subtle analysis of the surrounding world, that is, it identifies its individual elements and properties. Analyzers can be external or internal. External analyzers have receptors located on the surface of the body - the eye, ear, etc. Internal analyzers have receptors located in internal organs and tissues.
TYPES OF SENSATIONS
Visual sensations are sensations of light and color. Visual sensations arise as a result of the influence of light rays (electromagnetic waves) on the retina, which contains two types of cells - rods and cones, so named for their external shape. In daylight, only cones are active. In low light (at dusk), the cones stop working and a person sees mainly gray (achromatic) colors.
A disease in which the functioning of the rods is disrupted and a person sees poorly or does not see anything at dusk and at night, but during the day his vision remains relatively normal, is called “night blindness,” since chickens and pigeons do not have rods and see almost nothing at dusk. The most common is red-green blindness, called color blindness (named after the English scientist D. Dalton, who first described this phenomenon). Colorblind people cannot distinguish between red and green, so they cannot be drivers, pilots, firefighters, artists, etc.
Auditory sensations arise through the organ of hearing. There are three types of auditory sensations: speech, music and noise. In these types of sensations sound analyzer distinguishes four qualities: sound strength (loud - weak), height (high - low), timbre (the originality of the voice or musical instrument), sound duration (sounding time), as well as tempo-rhythmic features of sequentially perceived sounds.
Hearing for speech sounds is called phonemic hearing. It is formed depending on the speech environment in which the child is raised. Mastering a foreign language involves the development of a new system of phonemic hearing. A child’s developed phonemic hearing significantly influences the accuracy of written speech, especially in elementary school. Ear for music is brought up and formed, just like speech hearing.
Noises can evoke a certain emotional mood in a person (the sound of rain, the rustling of leaves, the howling of the wind), sometimes they serve as a signal of approaching danger (the hiss of a snake, the menacing barking of a dog, the roar of a moving train) or joy (the patter of a child’s feet, the steps of an approaching loved one, the thunder of fireworks ). In teaching practice, we often encounter the negative effects of noise: it tires the human nervous system.
Vibration sensations reflect vibrations of an elastic medium. A person gets such sensations, for example, when he touches the lid of a sounding piano with his hand. Vibration sensations usually do not play an important role for humans and are poorly developed. However, they reach a very high level of development in many deaf people, for whom they partially replace missing hearing.
Olfactory sensations. The ability to smell is called the sense of smell. The olfactory organs are special sensitive cells that are located deep in the nasal cavity. Individual particles of substances enter the nose along with the air that we inhale. In modern man, the olfactory sensations play a relatively minor role. But blind-deaf people use their sense of smell, just as sighted people use their vision and hearing: they identify familiar places by smell, recognize familiar people, etc.
Taste sensations arise with the help of the taste organs - taste buds located on the surface of the tongue, pharynx and palate. There are four types of basic taste sensations: sweet, bitter, sour, salty. A person’s sense of taste is highly dependent on the feeling of hunger and smell. With a severe runny nose, any dish, even your favorite, seems tasteless. The tip of the tongue tastes sweets best. The edges of the tongue are sensitive to sour, and its base to bitter.
Skin sensations - tactile (touch sensations) and temperature (warm or cold sensations). There are different types of nerve endings on the surface of the skin, each of which gives the sensation of touch, cold, or heat. Temperature sensations have a very pronounced emotional tone. Thus, average temperatures are accompanied by a positive feeling, the nature of the emotional coloring for warmth and cold is different: cold is experienced as an invigorating feeling, warmth as a relaxing one. High temperatures, both in the cold and warm directions, cause negative emotional experiences.
Motor (or kinesthetic) sensations are sensations of movement and position of body parts. Thanks to the activity of the motor analyzer, a person gains the opportunity to coordinate and control his movements. Receptors of motor sensations are located in the muscles and tendons, as well as in the fingers, tongue and lips, since it is these organs that carry out precise and subtle working and speech movements.
Visceral (organic) sensations tell us about the work of our internal organs - the esophagus, stomach, intestines and many others, in the walls of which the corresponding receptors are located. While we are full and healthy, we do not notice any organic sensations. They appear only when there is a malfunction in their work or a disease develops. Organic sensations are closely related to human organic needs.
Tactile sensations are combinations of skin and motor sensations when feeling objects, that is, when touching them with a moving hand. The combination of skin and motor sensations that arise when feeling objects, i.e. touching them with a moving hand is called touch. The organ of touch is the hand.
The feeling of balance reflects the position occupied by our body in space. When we first get on a two-wheeled bicycle, skate, roller skate, or water ski, the most difficult thing is to maintain balance and not fall. The sense of balance is given to us by an organ located in the inner ear. It looks like a snail shell and is called a labyrinth. When the position of the body changes, a special fluid (lymph) vibrates in the labyrinth of the inner ear, called the vestibular apparatus.
Painful sensations have a protective meaning: they signal a person about trouble that has arisen in his body. Complete insensitivity to pain is a rare anomaly, and it brings serious trouble to a person. Painful sensations have a different nature. Firstly, there are “pain points” (special receptors) located on the surface of the skin and in the internal organs and muscles. Secondly, sensations of pain arise when an extremely strong stimulus acts on any analyzer.
Basic patterns of sensations
In order for a sensation to arise, the irritation must reach a certain magnitude. Stimuli that are too weak do not cause sensation. The minimum magnitude of the stimulus that gives a noticeable sensation is called the absolute threshold of sensation.
Each type of sensation has its own threshold. The value of the absolute threshold characterizes the absolute sensitivity of the senses, or their ability to respond to minimal influences. The lower the threshold of sensation, the greater the absolute sensitivity to these stimuli.
Another important characteristic of the analyzer is its ability to distinguish changes in the strength of the stimulus. That smallest increase in the strength of the current stimulus, at which a barely noticeable difference in the strength or quality of sensations occurs, is called the threshold of sensitivity to discrimination.
Adaptation - with prolonged exposure to various stimuli, the sensation gradually decreases. This phenomenon is based on complex processes occurring both in the receptor apparatus and in the central parts of the nervous system. Interaction of sensations. The work of one analyzer can affect the work of another, strengthening or weakening it. For example, weak musical sounds can increase the sensitivity of the visual analyzer, while sharp or strong sounds, on the contrary, worsen vision. Rubbing your face with cool water and mild sweet and sour taste sensations can sharpen your vision.
A defect in the operation of one analyzer is usually compensated by increased work and improvement of other analyzers when one of them is lost. The remaining intact analyzers, with their clearer work, compensate for the activity of the “retired” analyzers (in blind-deaf people).
Development of sensations. The development of sensations occurs in connection with practical, labor activity person and depends on the requirements for the functioning of the senses. A high degree of perfection is achieved, for example, by the olfactory and gustatory sensations of tasters who determine the quality of tea, wine, perfume, etc. The accuracy of determining sounds in pitch is influenced, for example, by the instrument a person plays. A feature of the human sensory organization is that it develops during life. Sensitivity is a potential human property. Its implementation depends on the circumstances of life and the efforts that a person puts into their development.
PERCEPTION
Sensations and perceptions are links in a single process of sensory cognition. They are inextricably interconnected, but also have their own distinctive features. In contrast to sensation, during perception a person learns not the individual properties of objects and phenomena, but the objects and phenomena of the surrounding world as a whole.
Perception is a reflection of objects and phenomena, integral situations of the objective world in the totality of their properties and parts with their direct impact on the senses.
There are no special sensory organs. The physiological basis of perception is the complex activity of the analyzer system. Any object or phenomenon of reality acts as a complex, complex stimulus. Perception is the result of the analytical-synthetic activity of the cerebral cortex: individual excitations and sensations are connected with each other, forming a certain integral system.
Types of perception. Depending on which analyzer plays the predominant role in perception, visual, tactile, kinesthetic, olfactory and gustatory perceptions are distinguished. Complex types of perception represent combinations, a combination of different types of perception. Unlike sensations, images of perception usually arise as a result of the work of several analyzers. Complex types of perception include, for example, the perception of space and the perception of time.
Perceiving space, i.e. The distance of objects from us and from each other, their shape and size, a person is based on visual sensations, and on auditory, skin and motor sensations.
In the perception of time, in addition to auditory and visual sensations, motor and organic sensations play an important role. The perception of time is understood as the process of reflecting the duration and sequence of events occurring in the objective world. Only very short periods of time are amenable to direct perception. When we are talking about longer periods of time, it is more correct to talk not about perception, but about the representation of time. The perception of time is characterized by a high degree of subjectivity. Time periods filled with positively emotionally charged actions and experiences of a person are perceived as shorter. Unfilled or filled with negatively colored emotional moments are perceived as longer. Time filled with interesting work passes much faster than time filled with monotonous or boring activities.
Basic properties of perception
Selectivity of perception. Of the huge number of diverse influences, we highlight only a few with great clarity and awareness. What is in the center of a person’s attention during perception is called the object (subject) of perception, and everything else is the background. The subject and the background are dynamic, they can change places - what was the object of perception can become the background of perception for some time. Perception is always selective and depends on apperception.
Apperception is the dependence of perception on the general content of a person’s mental life, his experience and knowledge, interests, feelings and a certain attitude towards the subject of perception. Sometimes a person perceives not what is, but what he wants. Artists, architects, and tailors are well aware of visual illusions. For example, vertical stripes on a dress visually “make” a woman taller. Try holding your hand very cold water, and then put it in a warm place. It will seem to you that your hand has almost fallen into boiling water. If you eat a piece of lemon or herring and wash it down with tea with a little sugar, the first sip will seem very sweet.
Individual characteristics of perception. People differ:
1) by the nature of receiving information. A holistic (synthetic) type of perception is distinguished. This type is characterized by a focus on the essence, meaning, generalization, and not on details and particulars. The detailing (analytical) type of perception is focused on details.
2) by the nature of the reflection of the information received. Here we distinguish between descriptive and explanatory types of perception. The descriptive type is focused on the factual side of information: it reflects what it sees and hears, getting as close as possible to the original data, but often without delving into its meaning. The explanatory type tries to find the general meaning of information.
3) by the nature of the personality’s characteristics. Here, an objective type of perception is distinguished, when a person is focused on the accuracy of perception and impartiality. Subjective type, when perception is subject to a subjective attitude towards what is perceived, a biased assessment of it, pre-existing preconceived thoughts about it. This is the most common everyday type of perception.
Observation is perception, closely related to the activity of thinking - comparison, discrimination, analysis. Observation is the purposeful, systematic perception of objects and phenomena in the knowledge of which we are interested. To observe means not just to look, but to examine, not just to listen, but to listen, to listen, not just to smell, but to sniff.
Observation involves a clear understanding of the objectives of the observation and the development of a plan for its implementation. Clarity of the purpose and objectives of observation activates an important characteristic of perception - selectivity. Perception, attention, thinking and speech are combined during observation into a single process of mental activity. Observation is a personality trait, the ability to observe and notice characteristic, but little noticeable features of objects, phenomena, and people. It is closely related to the development of a person’s professional interests, as it is improved in the process of systematically engaging in the chosen occupation.
Thus, the variety of sensations is a reflection of the many existing properties of his habitat that are significant for a person and his interaction with this environment. Sensations and perceptions are links in a single process of sensory cognition. Perception is a reflection of objects and phenomena, integral situations of the objective world in the totality of their properties and parts with their direct impact on the senses.
2. Integrative cognitive processes. Memory, representation, attention and imagination.
Memory is the process of remembering, preserving, reproducing and forgetting past experience, making it possible to reuse it in activity or return to the sphere of consciousness.
Memory is the main condition for human mental development and ensures the unity and integrity of the individual. The psychological basis of memory is consciousness. The physiological basis of memory is the formation, preservation and actualization (demand) of temporary nerve connections through the occurrence of physical and chemical processes in the cortex and subcortex of the brain.
Types of memory can be divided into three groups:
1) what a person remembers (objects and phenomena, thoughts, movements,
feelings). Accordingly, they distinguish between motor, emotional, verbal-logical and figurative memory;
2) how a person remembers (accidentally or intentionally). Here they highlight
voluntary and involuntary memory;
3) how long the memorized information is retained. These are short-term, long-term and working memory.
Motor (motor) memory allows you to remember abilities, skills, various movements and actions. If it were not for this type of memory, then a person would have to learn to walk, write, and perform various activities all over again.
Emotional memory helps us remember the feelings, emotions, experiences that we experienced in certain situations. Emotional memory is of great importance in the formation of a person’s personality, being the most important condition for his spiritual development.
Semantic, or verbal-logical memory is expressed in the memorization, preservation and reproduction of thoughts, concepts, reflections, and verbal formulations. The form of thought reproduction depends on the level of human speech development. The less developed speech is, the more difficult it is to express the meaning in your own words.
Figurative memory. This type of memory is associated with our senses, through which a person perceives the world around us. In accordance with our senses, there are 5 types of figurative memory: auditory, visual, olfactory, gustatory, tactile. These types of figurative memory are developed unevenly in humans; one is always predominant.
Voluntary memory presupposes the presence of a special goal to remember, which a person sets and applies appropriate techniques for this, making volitional efforts.
Involuntary memory does not imply a special goal to remember or recall this or that material, incident, phenomenon; they are remembered as if by themselves, without the use of special techniques, without volitional efforts. In the development of memory, involuntary memorization precedes voluntary memorization. A person involuntarily remembers not everything, but what is connected with his personality and activities. What we involuntarily remember, first of all, is what we like, what we paid attention to, what we actively and enthusiastically work on. Therefore, involuntary memory also has an active character. Animals already have involuntary memory. The best way to remember and retain it in memory for a long time is to apply knowledge in practice. In addition, memory does not want to retain in consciousness what contradicts the attitudes of the individual.
Short-term and long-term memory. These two types of memory differ in the duration of retention of what a person remembers. Short-term memory has a relatively short duration - a few seconds or minutes. It is sufficient for accurate reproduction of events that have just occurred, objects and phenomena that have just been perceived. After a short time, the impressions disappear, and the person usually finds himself unable to remember anything from what he perceived. Long-term memory ensures long-term retention of material. What is important is the attitude to remember for a long time, the need for this information, and its personal significance for the person.
They also allocate RAM - storing some information for the time necessary to perform an operation, a separate act of activity. For example, in the process of solving any problem, it is necessary to retain in memory the initial data and intermediate operations, which may later be forgotten, until the result is obtained.
All types of memory are necessary and valuable in themselves; in the process of human life they are generalized and interact with each other.
Memory processes
The basic processes of memory are memorization, reproduction, storage, recognition, forgetting. The quality of operation of the entire memory apparatus is judged by the nature of reproduction. Memory begins with remembering.
Memorization is the imprinting of images of objective reality perceived by the human consciousness in a short period of time, ensuring the preservation of material in memory for its subsequent reproduction.
With unintentional memorization, a person does not set a goal to remember and does not make any effort for this. This is how something that vividly interests a person or evokes a strong and deep feeling in him is remembered. But any activity requires that a person remember many things that are not remembered by themselves. Then deliberate, conscious memorization comes into force, i.e. the goal is set to remember the material.
Mechanical memorization is based on the consolidation of individual connections and associations. Semantic memorization is associated with thinking processes. If memorization has the character of specially organized work associated with the use of certain techniques for the best assimilation of knowledge, it is called memorization.
Memorization depends: a) on the nature of the activity, on the processes of goal setting: voluntary memorization, based on a consciously set goal - to remember, is more effective than involuntary;
b) from installation - remember for a long time or remember for a short time. We often set out to memorize some material knowing that, in all likelihood, we will only use it on a certain day and then it will not matter. Indeed, after this period we forget what we have learned.
c) from the emotions experienced. It is better to learn material that is emotionally charged, interesting, and personally significant.
Methods of random or organized memorization:
1. Grouping - dividing the material into groups for some reason (by meaning, associations, etc.), highlighting strong points (thesis, titles, questions, examples, etc., in this sense, compiling cheat sheets: useful for memorization), plan - a set of support points; classification - distribution of any objects, phenomena, concepts into classes, groups based on common characteristics.
2. Structuring the material - establishing the relative position of the parts that make up the whole.
3. Schematization - description of information in basic terms.
4. Analogy - establishing similarities, similarities between phenomena, objects, concepts, images.
5. Mnemonic techniques - certain techniques or methods of memorization.
6. Recoding - verbalization or pronunciation, presentation of information in figurative form.
7. Completing the memorized material, introducing new things into memorization (using words or intermediary images, situational features).
8. Associations - establishing connections based on similarity, contiguity or opposition.
9. Repetition - consciously controlled and uncontrolled processes of reproducing material. Memorization occurs faster and is more durable when repetitions do not immediately follow each other, but are separated by more or less significant periods of time (it is better to take breaks from two hours to a day).
Preservation is the assimilation by the human consciousness of previously perceived images of objects and phenomena. The duration of storage depends on the time. 20 minutes after memorization, 58.2% of information is retained, after an hour - 44.2%, after 8 hours - 35.8%, after 24 hours - 33.7%. Criteria for storing material in memory: reproduction and recognition.
Reproduction is the actualization of images of objects and phenomena, thoughts, actions and deeds fixed by the human consciousness. Reproduction can occur at three levels: recognition, reproduction itself (voluntary and involuntary), remembering (in conditions of partial forgetting, requiring volitional effort).
When unintentionally reproducing a thought, word, etc. are remembered by themselves, without any conscious intention on our part. Unintentional reproduction may be caused by associations. We say: “I remembered.” Here thought follows association. In intentional recollection we say, “I remember.” Here associations already follow thought.
If reproduction is associated with difficulties, we talk about recollection. Remembering is the most active reproduction; it is associated with tension and requires certain volitional efforts. The success of recall depends on understanding the logical connection between the forgotten material and the rest of the material, which is well preserved in memory. It is important to evoke a chain of associations that indirectly help to remember what is needed.
Recognition is the simplest form of reproduction. Recognition is the development of a feeling of familiarity when experiencing something again. This is a process that is characterized by the fact that images fixed in memory arise without relying on secondary perception of objects. It's easier to learn than to reproduce.
Forgetting is the process of erasing previously imprinted images in a time period. Forgetting begins soon after memorization and at first proceeds at a particularly rapid pace. In the first 5 days, approximately 75% of information is forgotten, and in the next 25 days - another 4%. 31 days after memorization, 21% of the original memorized information remains. Therefore, you should repeat what you have learned not when it has already been forgotten, but while forgetting has not yet begun. To prevent forgetting, a quick repetition is enough, but to restore what has been forgotten requires a lot of work.
Memory qualities: 1) speed of memorization; 2) durability; 3) accuracy of memory - absence of distortions, omissions of essential things, 4) readiness of memory - the ability to quickly retrieve from memory what is needed at the moment.
PERFORMANCE
Images of objects and phenomena that we do not perceive at the moment are called representations. Representations can be evoked through the mechanism of associations, using words or descriptions. The difference between ideas and perceptions is that ideas give a more generalized reflection of objects. Ideas are very unstable, fickle and fragmentary. Representations are the result of processing and generalization of past perceptions. Those born blind have no ideas about colors and colors; those born deaf have no ideas about sounds. Representation is associated with the work of figurative memory.
Representation is a higher level of cognition than perception; it is a stage of transition from sensation to thought; it is a visual and at the same time generalized image that reflects the characteristic features of an object. In the formation of general ideas, speech plays a crucial role, naming a number of objects in one word. Ideas are formed in the process of human activity, therefore, depending on the profession, one type of ideas predominantly develops.
ATTENTION
The human brain constantly receives a huge amount of information, from which it is necessary to select the most necessary. The mechanism of choice is attention. Attention is a mental cognitive process of selective orientation and concentration of consciousness on certain objects and phenomena.
Attention is not an independent mental function. This is a special form of human mental activity; it is included as a necessary component in all types of mental processes. Attention is a characteristic of any mental process: perception, when we listen, consider; thinking when solving a problem; memory, when we remember something or try to remember; imagination, when we try to clearly imagine something. Thus, attention is the ability to choose what is important for oneself and focus one’s perception, thinking, imagination, etc. on it.
Attentiveness is an important quality of any profession. Types of attention:
1. involuntary - does not require volitional effort, attracts with the novelty, unusualness, significance of the object (for example, advertising a product);
2. voluntary - controlled by volitional effort and directed at a specific object depending on the task;
Basic properties of attention. There are five properties of attention: concentration, stability, volume, distribution and switching.
1. Focus is maintaining attention on one object or one activity while distracting from everything else. Focus is associated with deep, effective interest in an activity, an event or fact. The degree or strength of concentration is the concentration or intensity of attention.
Concentration is the absorption of attention on one object or one activity. An indicator of intensity is the inability to distract attention from the subject of activity by extraneous stimuli. For example, a child puts together a new construction set. He is completely absorbed in his work, is not distracted for a minute, does not notice how time passes, does not respond to phone calls, you can call him, call him to dinner - he does not answer, and sometimes he does not even hear.
2. Stability is the long-term retention of attention on an object or some activity. Sustained attention is one that can remain continuously focused on one subject or the same work for a long time. Full stability is maintained for 15-20 minutes;
Unstable attention is periodically weakened or distracted.
3. Volume is the number of objects that are covered by attention simultaneously, at the same time. The attention span of adults usually ranges from 4 to 6 objects. The scope of attention largely depends on knowledge of objects and their connections with each other.
4. Distribution of attention is the ability to perform two or more different activities while maintaining your attention on them. Attention can be divided simultaneously between several different activities. For example, a student at a lecture divides his attention between what he is writing down and what he is hearing at the moment.
5. Switching attention is a conscious and meaningful movement of attention from one object or action to another, it is a restructuring of attention, its transition from one object to another in connection with a change in the tasks of the activity. Conscious switching of attention should not be confused with distractibility of attention. Normally, switching occurs 3-4 times per second. Different activities require different forms of attention.
The development and strengthening of voluntary attention is facilitated by:
a person’s awareness of the importance of the task: the more important the task, the stronger
the desire to fulfill it, the more attention is attracted;
interest in the final result of the activity makes you remind
to yourself that you need to be attentive;
organization of activities.
Attention and distraction. Attention is usually opposed to absent-mindedness. In our language, absent-mindedness is often understood as a synonym for inattention. However, these terms are not always the same.
Absent-mindedness may be the result of instability, weakness of attention. The person cannot concentrate on anything for a long time, his attention continuously jumps from one to another. For example, such attention is typical for children; it is also observed in adults, especially in a state of fatigue, during illness.
One of the reasons for inattention is insufficient mental activity. Personal orientation plays a huge role in the development of attention.
Imagination
Imagination is a mental cognitive process of creating new images, ideas, thoughts based on existing ideas and life experiences. The material for imagination is past impressions, sensations, life experiences, and knowledge. Psychological mechanisms of imagination:
The images that arise in the imagination always contain features of images already known to a person. But in the new image they are transformed, changed, combined into unusual combinations. The essence of imagination lies in the ability to notice and highlight objects and phenomena. specific signs and properties and transfer them to other objects. There are several imagination techniques.
Combination is a combination of individual elements of various images of objects in new, more or less unusual combinations. Combination is a creative synthesis, and not a simple sum of already known elements, it is a process of significant transformation of the elements from which a new image is built.
Emphasis - emphasizing certain features (for example, the image of a giant). This method underlies the creation of caricatures and friendly caricatures (smart - a very high forehead, lack of intelligence - low).
Individual characteristics of imagination are determined by:
1) the degree of ease and difficulty with which imagination is given to a person;
2) characteristics of the created image (absurdity, original find);
3) in which area is the creation of new images brighter and faster (personal orientation).
Manifestations of imagination: dream (images of the desired future associated with reality); fantasy (images partially related to reality); dreams (complete separation from reality).
Thus, integrative cognitive processes include memory, representation, attention, imagination and memory. Integrative cognitive processes are the main conditions for human mental development; they ensure the unity and integrity of the individual.
3.Higher mental cognitive processes. Thinking, intelligence and speech.
THINKING
Thinking is a socially conditioned cognitive process inextricably linked with speech, characterized by a generalized and mediated reflection of connections and relationships between objects in the surrounding reality
The mental activity of people is carried out with the help of mental operations: comparison, analysis and synthesis, abstraction, generalization and concretization. All these operations are different aspects of the main activity of thinking - the disclosure of more significant objective connections and relationships between objects, phenomena, and facts.
1. Comparison is a comparison of objects and phenomena in order to find similarities and differences between them. Successful comparison of objects and phenomena is possible when it is purposeful, that is, it occurs from a certain point of view. It can be aimed either at establishing the similarity of objects, or at establishing differences, or at both at the same time. By comparing things, phenomena, their properties, comparison reveals identity and difference. Revealing the identity of some and the differences of other things, comparison leads to their classification. Classification is made according to some characteristic that turns out to be inherent in each item of this group. Thus, in a library, books can be classified by author, by content, by genre, by binding, by format, etc. The characteristic by which the classification is made is called the basis of classification.
2. Analysis and synthesis are the most important mental operations that are inextricably linked. In unity they provide complete and comprehensive knowledge of reality. Analysis provides knowledge of individual elements, and synthesis, based on the results of analysis, combining these elements, provides knowledge of the object as a whole.
Analysis is the mental division of an object or phenomenon into its constituent parts or the mental isolation of individual properties, features, and qualities in it. Analysis can also be a mental selection as a whole of its individual properties, features, and aspects. Analysis is possible not only when we perceive an object, but also when we remember it and imagine it. Analysis of concepts is also possible, when we mentally identify their various features, analysis of the train of thought, proof, explanations, etc.
Synthesis is a mental connection of individual parts of objects or a mental combination of their individual properties. If analysis provides knowledge of individual elements, then synthesis, based on the results of analysis, combining these elements, provides knowledge of the object as a whole. There are two types of synthesis: as a mental unification of parts of a whole and as a mental combination of various signs, properties, aspects of objects and phenomena of reality.
3. Abstraction is the mental selection of essential properties and features of objects or phenomena while simultaneously abstracting from non-essential features and properties. A sign or property of an object, identified in the process of abstraction, becomes independent objects of thought. Thus, in all metals we can distinguish one property - electrical conductivity.
4. Generalization and specification.
Abstraction underlies generalization - the mental unification of objects and phenomena into groups according to those common and essential features that are highlighted in the process of abstraction.
Concretization is a mental transition from the general to the individual, which corresponds to this general. Concretization plays a significant role in the explanation that we give to other people. In educational activities, to concretize means to give an example, an illustration, a specific fact that confirms a general theoretical position, rule, law (for example, a grammatical, mathematical rule, a physical, socio-historical law, etc.). The lack of specification leads to formalism of knowledge; the particular provides significant assistance to the understanding of the general.
Forms of thinking:
1. A concept is a form of thinking that reflects the general and essential properties of objects and phenomena. For example, the concept of “tree” includes all the characteristics inherent in a tree, and does not include what is characteristic only of birch, or spruce, or oak, etc. Reflecting the general, essential, and natural in objects or phenomena of reality, the concept is the highest level of reflection peace.
2. Judgments are the main form of thinking, reflecting connections and relationships between objects and phenomena of the surrounding world, their properties and characteristics. Judgment is a form of thinking that contains the affirmation or denial of any position regarding objects, phenomena or their properties.
Judgments can be general, particular and individual. In general judgments, something is affirmed or denied regarding all objects and phenomena united by a concept, for example: “All metals conduct electricity.”
Judgment reveals the content of concepts. To know an object or phenomenon means to be able to make a correct and meaningful judgment about it, that is, to be able to judge it. The truth of judgments is verified by a person’s social practice.
3. Inference is a form of thinking in which a person, comparing and analyzing various judgments, derives a new judgment from them. A typical example of inference is the proof of geometric theorems. A person uses mainly two types of inferences - inductive and deductive.
Induction is a method of reasoning from particular judgments to a general judgment, the establishment of general laws and rules based on the study of individual facts and phenomena. Induction begins with the accumulation of knowledge about the largest possible number of homogeneous objects and phenomena, which makes it possible to find similarities and differences in objects and phenomena and omit the unimportant and secondary. By summarizing the similar characteristics of these objects and phenomena, they draw a general conclusion or conclusion, establish a general rule or law.
Deduction is a method of reasoning from a general judgment to a particular judgment, knowledge of individual facts and phenomena based on knowledge of general laws and rules. Deductive inference gives a person knowledge about the specific properties and qualities of a particular object based on knowledge of general laws and rules. For example, knowing that all bodies expand when heated, a person can foresee that railroad rails on a hot summer day will also expand, and therefore, when laying a railroad track, builders leave a certain gap between the rails.
4. Reasoning is a person’s practical thought, expressed in the unity of concepts, judgments, and conclusions
Solving a mental problem begins with a thorough analysis of data, understanding what is given and what a person has at his disposal. These data are compared with each other and with the question, and correlated with the person’s previous knowledge and experience. A person tries to use principles that have been successfully applied before in solving a problem similar to a new one. On this basis, a hypothesis (assumption) arises, a method of action, a path to solution is outlined. Practical testing of the hypothesis and testing of the solution path can show the fallacy of the intended actions.
Types of thinking
in form and content, concretely effective, visually
figurative and abstract logical thinking.
by the nature of the problems being solved, thinking can be theoretical and
practical.
according to the degree of development and awareness, thinking can be
analytical (logical) and intuitive.
according to the degree of novelty and originality, thinking can be classified as
reproductive (reproducing) and productive creativity.
Concretely effective is thinking that comes down to real, practical actions of a person in a clearly perceived situation (setting). Here, internal, mental actions are reduced to a minimum, and the task is mainly solved through external, practical actions with real material objects. This type of thinking can be observed already in young children, starting from 6 to 8 months of life.
Visual-figurative thinking is thinking in which problems are solved not by manipulating real, material objects, but by means of internal actions with images of these objects. This thinking is very clearly manifested when understanding, for example, complex pictures, complex situations.
Abstract-logical thinking is the highest type of human thinking, dealing with concepts about objects and phenomena, and not with the objects, phenomena or their images themselves, and is expressed in words or other signs. This type occurs entirely on the internal, mental plane.
The division of thinking into theoretical and practical is very conditional and relative; we are talking only about the predominance of certain components and its direction. Theoretical and practical thinking are distinguished by the type of problems being solved and the resulting structural and dynamic features.
Theoretical thinking is aimed at understanding the most general laws and rules. It operates with the most general categories and concepts. All kinds of scientific concepts, theories, methodological foundations of science are the product of this type of thinking. Theoretical thinking is the basis of scientific creativity.
The main task of practical thinking is the preparation of physical transformations of reality, that is, setting a goal, creating a plan, project, scheme of actions and transformations. Its ability lies in the fact that it is often deployed in conditions of time shortage, and also in the fact that in the conditions of practical activity its subject has limited capabilities for testing hypotheses.
It is important to distinguish between productive and reproductive thinking, based on the degree of novelty of the product obtained in the process of mental activity in relation to the subject’s activities.
Productive thinking generates new knowledge, new material or ideal results. Productive, for example, is the thinking of a scientist making a new discovery, a writer creating a new work, an artist painting a new picture.
Reproductive is thinking that rediscovers already known knowledge or recreates something that was once created by someone. Reproductive thinking is typical for people who repeatedly solve typical problems. In this type of thinking, a person follows a known, well-trodden path, which is why this type of thinking is also called uncreative.
A distinction is also made between intuitive and analytical (logical) thinking. Three characteristics are usually used: temporal (time of the process), structural (divided into stages), level of occurrence (awareness or unconsciousness).
Analytical thinking unfolds in time, has clearly defined stages, and the thinking process itself is conscious. Unlike analytical thinking, intuitive thinking is characterized by rapidity, there are no stages in it, and, finally, its process is realized to a minimal extent.
Realistic thinking is based on real knowledge about the world, is aimed at achieving goals determined by vital needs and circumstances, it is regulated by logical laws, and its flow is consciously controlled and directed.
Autistic thinking is based on arbitrary, irrational assumptions while ignoring real facts. Its main driving and guiding force is poorly realized or unconscious desires or fears. It is more related to the realization of desires.
Intelligence
Individual differences in the mental activity of people are manifested in various qualities of thinking. The most significant of them are independence, breadth, depth, flexibility, speed and criticality.
1. Independence of thinking is manifested in a person’s ability to put forward new ideas, problems and find the necessary answers and solutions, without resorting to the opinions and frequent help of other people. Independent thinking has always been considered one of the most important dimensions of personality. Anyone who does not have independent thinking is guided only by other people's knowledge, experience, opinions, and when solving any questions and problems, they rely on ready-made formulas and template solutions.
2. Breadth of mind is manifested in a person’s broad outlook, in active cognitive activity, covering the most diverse areas of science and practice.
3. Depth - the ability to penetrate into the essence of the most complex issues, the ability to see a problem where other people have no questions.
4. Since thinking can be broad, it means that someone can also have narrow thinking, the subject of which is some small (narrow) part of reality. Narrow thinking can be meaningful and deep (the thinking of a “narrow specialist”), or it can be poor, shallow, and superficial.
5. Flexibility of mind is expressed in the ability to be free from accepted stereotyped techniques and methods of solving problems of any content and level, in the ability to quickly change one’s actions when the situation changes, quickly switch from one method of solution or behavior to another, diversify attempts to solve a problem or task, and thereby finding new ways to solve them faster.
6. An important quality of the mind is the ability to foresight. The development of this particular quality allows a person to productively perform the function of managing an activity, especially if this activity involves many people. “To manage is to foresee,” says an old saying.
Speech is the process of individual use of language for the purpose of communicating with other people, the material carrier of thinking.
In order to speak and understand someone else's speech, you need to know the language and be able to use it.
Language is a system of conventional symbols with the help of which combinations of sounds are transmitted that have a certain meaning and meaning for people. Language is developed by society and is a form of reflection of their social existence in the public consciousness of people.
Language is a rather complex formation. Each language has a certain system meaningful words, which is called the lexical composition of the language. In addition, a language has a certain system of various forms of words and phrases, which constitutes the grammar of the language, as well as a certain sound, or phonetic, composition, characteristic only of this particular language. The main purpose of language is that, being a system of signs, it ensures that each word has a specific meaning. The main functions of speech include message, designation, expression, influence. With the help of speech, we express our thoughts, express our attitude towards the object or phenomenon we are talking about. But for successful military professional activity, the influencing function of speech is most significant.
The influencing function of speech is to encourage a person to perform tasks using words. Speech influence can change the mental state, feelings and motives of people’s behavior. The influencing function of speech is widely used in educational work, in leadership and command. There are several types of speech: oral, written and internal. In turn, oral speech is divided into dialogical and monological. We use dialogical speech when we have a conversation. Having contact with the interlocutor helps to omit certain points in the speech. In other cases, dialogic speech can be more detailed, for example, when there is a scientific debate, a commander is talking with a subordinate about service issues, etc. In these cases, expanded sentences are used to ensure a more complete achievement of the content and expressiveness of speech.
Monologue speech is a speech by one person, for example a lecture, report. Here the direct contact is weaker, it is more difficult to assess how people listening to the speech perceive the speech. Monologue speech requires a lot of knowledge, general culture, correct pronunciation, self-control, active and systematic transmission of information, accurate descriptions, definitions, skillful handling of comparisons, etc.
Manifestation and use of oral speech in everyday communication called speech communication: Its influence extends to all aspects of the life and activities of military personnel. It influences relationships, the formation of public opinion and relationships.
Written speech is the process of transmitting speech information using letter symbols. This type of communication is the most difficult. To convey the mental state, emotions, thoughts, it is necessary to present information and facts in the most complete, consistent and understandable way.
Inner speech is pronounced mentally. It does not perform the function of communication, but serves to carry out the thinking process and is the basis for the formation of mental actions. Often we say to ourselves what we intend to say to other people. Therefore, internal speech provides the semantic side of external speech.
The depth of perception of command speech depends on a number of conditions. The clearer, more precise and definite the order or requirement is formulated, the easier and more complete its understanding and comprehension by subordinates. The brevity and restraint of the order, along with the external calm and respectful tone of the commander himself, inspires the subordinate with confidence in the successful completion of the task. The order, the demand of an authoritative commander is immediately internally accepted by subordinates and becomes the motive for their activity.
Required individual approach to the formation of speech skills. But in most cases there is only one way: reading fiction, speaking at seminars and public events.
Thus, thinking is a socially conditioned cognitive process inextricably linked with speech, characterized by a generalized and mediated reflection of connections and relationships between objects in the surrounding reality. Individual differences in the mental activity of people are manifested in various qualities of thinking. Speech is the process of individual use of language for the purpose of communicating with other people, the material carrier of thinking.
So, the connection between speech and thinking not only allows us to penetrate deeper into the phenomena of reality, into the relationships between things, actions and qualities, but also has a system of syntactic constructions that make it possible to formulate a thought and express a judgment. Speech has more complex formations that provide the basis for theoretical thinking and which allow a person to go beyond immediate experience and draw conclusions in an abstract verbal-logical way. The apparatuses of logical thinking also include those logical structures, the model of which is the syllogism. The transition to complex forms of social activity makes it possible to master those means of language that underlie the highest level of knowledge - theoretical thinking. This transition from the sensory to the rational constitutes the main feature of human conscious activity, which is a product of socio-historical development.
Self-study questions:
1. Creativity.
2. Mnemonic processes. Thinking, intelligence and speech.
Mental processes: sensations, perception, attention, imagination, memory, thinking, speech - act as the most important components of any human activity. In order to satisfy his needs, communicate, play, study and work, a person must somehow perceive the world, paying attention to various moments or components of activity, imagine what he needs to do, remember, think about, express. Consequently, without the participation of mental processes, human activity is impossible. Moreover, it turns out that mental processes do not just participate in activity, they develop in it and themselves represent special types of activity.
What is the role of mental processes?
It is the function of a signal or regulator that adjusts action to changing conditions.
Psychic phenomena - these are the brain’s responses to external (environment) and internal (state of the body as a physiological system) influences.
In other words psychic phenomena - these are constant regulators of activity that arises in response to stimuli that act now (sensation and perception) and were once in past experience (memory), generalizing these influences or anticipating the results to which they will lead (thinking, imagination).
Mental processes
- processes occurring in the human head and reflected in dynamically changing mental phenomena.
Cognitive mental activity begins with sensations. According to the theory of reflection, sensation is the first and inconspicuous source of all our knowledge about the world. Thanks to sensations we know color, shape, size, smell, sound.
All living beings with a nervous system have the ability to sense sensations, but only living beings with a brain and cerebral cortex have the ability to experience conscious sensations.
Feel considered the simplest of all mental phenomena; they are a conscious, subjectively represented in a person’s head or unconscious, but acting on his behavior, a product of the processing by the central nervous system of significant stimuli arising in the internal or external environment. The physiological apparatus through which sensation arises is the analyzer. In order for a person to have normal sensations, all three parts of the analyzer need to be in a healthy state: the conductive receptor; neural pathway; cortical part.
TYPES OF SENSATIONS
1. External sensations.
Visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, skin, tactile - with their help a person learns the properties of objects that are outside of him. The receptors for these external sensations are located on the surface of the human body, in the sense organs.
In turn, dwelling in more detail on individual types of sensations of this type, we can characterize them as follows: sense of smell - a type of sensitivity that generates specific sensations of smell; taste sensations have four main modalities (sweet, salty, sour and bitter); touch(skin sensitivity) is the result of a complex combination of four simpler types of sensations (pressure, pain, heat and cold).
2. Internal sensations.
Hunger, thirst, nausea, heartburn, etc. These sensations provide information from the receptors of those sense organs that are inside the human body.
3. Motor sensations.
These are sensations of movement and body position in space. The receptors of the motor analyzer are located in muscles and ligaments - the so-called kinesthetic sensations - provide control of movements on a subconscious level (automatically).
ALL SENSATIONS HAVE COMMON LAWS:
1. Sensitivity- the body’s ability to respond to relatively weak influences. The sensations of each person have a certain range, on both sides this range is limited by the absolute threshold of sensation. Beyond the lower absolute threshold, the sensation does not yet arise, since the stimulus is too weak; beyond the upper threshold, there are no sensations, since the stimulus is too strong. As a result of systematic exercises, a person can increase his sensitivity (sensitization).
2. Adaptation(adaptation) - a change in the threshold of sensitivity under the influence of an active stimulus, for example: a person acutely senses any smell only in the first few minutes, then the sensations become dull, as the person has adapted to them.
3. Contrast- a change in sensitivity under the influence of a previous stimulus, for example, the same figure appears darker on a white background, and lighter on a black background.
Our sensations are closely connected and interact with each other. On the basis of this interaction, perception arises, a process more complex than sensation, which appeared much later during the development of the psyche in the animal world.
Perception - reflection of objects and phenomena of reality in the totality of their various properties and parts with their direct impact on the senses.
In other words, perception is nothing more than the process of a person receiving and processing various information entering the brain through the senses.
Perception, thus, acts as a meaningful (including decision-making) and meaningful (associated with speech) synthesis of various sensations obtained from integral objects or complex phenomena perceived as a whole. This synthesis appears in the form of an image of a given object or phenomenon, which develops during their active reflection.
Unlike sensations, which reflect only individual properties and qualities of objects, perception is always holistic. The result of perception is the image of the object. Therefore, it is always objective. Perception combines sensations coming from a number of analyzers. Not all analyzers are equally involved in this process. As a rule, one of them is the leader and determines the type of perception.
It is perception that is most closely related to the transformation of information coming directly from the external environment. At the same time, images are formed, with which attention, memory, thinking, and emotions subsequently operate. Depending on the analyzers, the following types of perception are distinguished: vision, touch, hearing, kinesthesia, smell, taste. Thanks to the connections formed between different analyzers, the image reflects such properties of objects or phenomena for which there are no special analyzers, for example, the size of the object, weight, shape, regularity, which indicates the complex organization of this mental process.
The construction of an image of a perceived object is closely related to the method of examining it. When an object is repeatedly perceived during the learning process, internalization occurs on one (external) side—a modification of the structure of actions with the object. It can be observed that the methods of examining an object are simplified and accelerated by reducing the number and fusing motor components into complexes. On the other (internal) side, an image of the object with which a person interacts is formed. Information about its properties (shape, size, etc.) obtained through motor examination in active interaction with an object is transformed into successive series of characteristics, from which integral representations of objects - images - are subsequently reconstructed.
Initially, human activity is directed and corrected by the influence of only external objects, but gradually it begins to be regulated by images. We can say that the image represents the subjective form of the object, it is a creation inner world of this person. Already in the process of forming this image, it is influenced by the attitudes, interests, needs and motives of the individual, determining its uniqueness and peculiarities of emotional coloring. Since the image simultaneously represents such different properties of an object as its size, color, shape, texture, rhythm, we can say that this is a holistic and generalized representation of the object, the result of the synthesis of many individual sensations, which is already capable of regulating appropriate behavior.
The main characteristics of perception include constancy, objectivity, integrity and generality (or categoricality).
Constancy- this is the relative independence of the image from the conditions of perception, manifested in its immutability: the shape, color and size of objects are perceived by us as constant, despite the fact that the signals coming from these objects to the senses are continuously changing. As is known, the size of the projection of an object on the retina of the eye depends on the distance between the object and the eye and on the angle of view, but objects seem to us to be of a constant size regardless of this distance (of course, within certain limits). The perception of color depends on many factors: illumination, background, intensity. At the same time, the color of familiar objects is always perceived the same, and similarly, the shape of familiar objects is perceived as constant, regardless of the observation conditions. The value of constancy is very high. Without this property, with every movement we make, with every change in the distance to an object, with the slightest turn or change in lighting, all the basic signs by which a person recognizes an object would almost continuously change. He would cease to perceive the world of stable things, and perception could not serve as a means of understanding objective reality.
An important characteristic of perception is its objectivity. Objectivity perception is manifested in the fact that the object is perceived by us precisely as a separate physical body isolated in space and time. This property is most clearly manifested in the phenomenon of isolating a figure from the background. Specifically, this is expressed in the fact that the entire reality observed by a person is divided into two parts of unequal importance: one - the object - is perceived as a concrete, clearly defined, closed whole located in the foreground, and the second - the background - as a more amorphous, indefinite, located behind subject and unlimited field. Thus, the perceived reality is always divided into two layers: the figure - the image of the object, and the background - the image of the space surrounding the object.
Any image integral This means the internal organic relationship between the parts and the whole in the image. When analyzing the integrity of perception, two interrelated aspects can be distinguished: the unification of different elements into a whole and the independence of the formed integrity (within certain boundaries) from the quality of the elements. At the same time, the perception of the whole affects the perception of the parts. Rule of Similarity: The more similar parts of a painting are to each other in some visually perceived quality, the more likely they are to be perceived as being placed together. Similarity in size, shape, and arrangement of parts can act as grouping properties. Elements that together make up a closed circuit, as well as elements with a so-called good shape, that is, possessing symmetry or periodicity, are combined into a single integral structure. The rule of common fate: many elements moving at the same speed and along the same trajectory are perceived holistically - as a single moving object. This rule also applies when objects are stationary, but the observer is moving. Proximity Rule: In any field containing several objects, those that are closest to each other can be visually perceived holistically as one object.
The independence of the whole from the quality of its constituent elements is manifested in the dominance of the integral structure over its components. There are three forms of such dominance. The first is expressed in the fact that the same element, being included in different integral structures, is perceived differently. The second is manifested in the fact that when individual elements are replaced, but the relationship between them is maintained, the overall structure of the image remains unchanged. As you know, you can depict a profile with strokes, dotted lines, and with the help of other elements, while maintaining a portrait resemblance. And finally, the third form is expressed in the well-known facts of the preservation of the perception of the structure as a whole when its individual parts fall out. So, for a holistic perception human face just a few elements of its outline are enough.
Another important characteristic of the image is its generality. It means that each image belongs to a certain class of objects that has a name. This reflects the influence not only of language, but also of the person’s experience. As experience expands, the image of perception, while maintaining its individuality and relevance to a specific object, is assigned to an increasingly larger set of objects of a certain category, that is, classified. It is classification that ensures the reliability of correct recognition of an object, regardless of its individual characteristics and distortions that do not take the object outside the class. The significance of the generality of recognition is manifested, for example, in a person’s ability to freely read a text, regardless of the font or handwriting in which it is written. It should be noted that the generality of perception allows not only to classify and recognize objects and phenomena, but also to predict some properties that are not directly perceived. Since an object is assigned to a given class based on its individual qualities, then with a certain probability we can expect that it also possesses other properties characteristic of this class.
There is some functional similarity between all the listed characteristics of perception. And constancy, and objectivity, and integrity, and generalization (categoriality) give the image an important feature - independence, within certain limits, from the conditions of perception and distortion. In this sense, constancy is independence from the physical conditions of perception, objectivity is from the background against which the object is perceived, integrity is the independence of the whole from distortion and replacement of the components that make up this whole, and, finally, generality is the independence of perception from such distortions and changes that do not take the object outside the class boundaries. In other words, generality is intraclass constancy; integrity - structural; subjectivity - semantic. It is clear that if perception did not possess these qualities, our ability to adapt to continuously changing conditions of existence would be much weaker. This organization of perception allows us to interact flexibly and adequately with the environment, and also, within certain limits, to predict the directly non-perceptible properties of objects and phenomena.
All of the considered properties of perception are not innate and develop during a person’s life.
A person does not need to perceive all the stimuli around him, and he cannot perceive everything at the same time. His perceptions are organized in the process of attention.
There are people who are always on guard; almost nothing can surprise, stun, or baffle. Their complete opposite is absent-minded and inattentive people, who sometimes get lost in the simplest situations.
Attention - This is the active focus of a person’s consciousness on certain objects and phenomena of reality or on certain of their properties, qualities, while simultaneously abstracting from everything else. Attention is such an organization of mental activity in which certain images, thoughts or feelings are recognized more clearly than others.
In other words, attention is nothing more than a state of psychological concentration, concentration on some object.
Relevant, personally significant signals are highlighted with attention. The choice is made from the set of all signals available for perception at a given moment. Unlike perception, which is associated with the processing and synthesis of information coming from inputs of different modalities, attention limits only that part of it that will actually be processed.
It is known that a person cannot think about different things and perform various jobs at the same time. This limitation leads to the need to split information coming from outside into parts that do not exceed the capabilities of the processing system. The central mechanisms of information processing in humans can deal with only one object at a given time. If signals about a second object appear during a reaction to the previous one, then processing of new information is not carried out until these mechanisms are released. Therefore, if a certain signal appears a short time after the previous one, then the person’s reaction time to the second signal is longer than the reaction time to it in the absence of the first. Trying to simultaneously follow one message and respond to another reduces both the accuracy of perception and the accuracy of the response.
The mentioned limitations on the possibility of simultaneous perception of several independent signals, information about which comes from the external and internal environment, are associated with the main characteristic of attention - its fixed volume. An important and defining feature of attention span is that it is practically impossible to regulate during learning and training.
The limited volume of perceived and processed material forces us to continuously break up incoming information into parts and determine the sequence (priority) of analyzing the environment. What determines the selectivity of attention and its direction? There are two groups of factors. The first includes factors that characterize the structure of external stimuli reaching a person, that is, the structure of the external field. These include the physical parameters of the signal, for example intensity, its frequency and other characteristics of the organization of signals in an external field. The second group includes factors that characterize the activity of the person himself, that is, the structure of the internal field. Indeed, everyone would agree that if a signal appears in the perceptual field that is either of greater intensity than others (for example, the sound of a gunshot or a flash of light) or of greater novelty (for example, a tiger unexpectedly entering the room), then this stimulus will automatically attract attention.
The conducted studies turned the attention of scientists to factors of central (internal) origin that influence the selectivity of attention: the correspondence of incoming information to a person’s needs, his emotional state, the relevance of this information for him. In addition, actions that are not sufficiently automated, as well as those that are not completed, require attention.
Numerous experiments have found that words that have a special meaning for a person, for example his name, the names of his loved ones, etc., are easier to extract from noise, since the central mechanisms of attention are always tuned to them. A striking example of the impact of highly relevant information is a fact known as the “party phenomenon.” Imagine that you are at a party and are engrossed in an interesting conversation. Suddenly you hear your name spoken softly by someone in another group of guests. You quickly turn your attention to the conversation taking place between these guests, and you may hear something interesting about yourself. But at the same time, you stop hearing what is being said in the group where you are standing, thereby missing the thread of the conversation in which you participated before. You tuned in to the second group and disconnected from the first. It was the high significance of the signal, and not its intensity, the desire to find out what other guests think of you, that determined the change in the direction of your attention.
Peripheral tuning of the senses plays a major role in the organization of pre-attention. Listening to a faint sound, a person turns his head in the direction of the sound and at the same time the corresponding muscle stretches the eardrum, increasing its sensitivity. When a sound is very loud, the tension of the eardrum changes, reducing the transmission of excessive vibrations to the inner ear, just as constriction of the pupil eliminates excess light. Stopping or holding your breath during moments of highest attention also makes listening easier.
Looking closely, a person performs a number of operations: convergence of the eyes, focusing of the lens, changing the diameter of the pupil. If it is necessary to see most of the scene, then the focal length is shortened; when details are interesting, it is lengthened, the corresponding parts of the scene are highlighted and become free from the influence of secondary details. The selected area, being in focus, is thus deprived of the context with which it was originally associated: it is clearly visible, and its surroundings (context) seem blurred. Thus, the same plot can acquire different meanings depending on the purpose or attitude of the observer.
Theories that connect attention with motivation deserve special consideration: what attracts attention is what is related to a person’s interests - this gives the object of perception additional intensity, and with it the clarity and distinctness of perception increases. Thus, a scientist studying a given specific problem will immediately pay attention to a seemingly small detail, but related to this problem, which will elude another person who does not show interest in this issue.
The physiological aspect of all theories without exception is associated with the consideration of attention as the result of additional nervous excitation emanating from higher nerve centers and leading to strengthening of an image or concept. Its dynamics are presented as follows: in response to stimulation coming from the senses, the central nervous system sends signals that selectively enhance certain aspects of external stimulation, highlighting them and giving them increased clarity and clarity.
To pay attention means to perceive something with the help of auxiliary mechanisms. Attention always involves several physiological and psychological insertions (of different nature and different levels), through which something specific is highlighted and clarified.
Thus, attention performs a kind of “feeling,” inspection, and analysis of the environment. Since it is impossible to feel the entire environment at once, a part of it is singled out - the field of attention. This is the part of the environment that is covered by attention at the moment. The analytical effect of attention can be considered as a consequence of its reinforcing influence. By intensifying the perception of part of the field and successively transferring this intensification to other parts, a person can achieve a complete analysis of the environment.
CHARACTERISTICS OF ATTENTION
A limited amount of attention determines its main characteristics: stability, concentration, distribution, switchability and objectivity.
Sustainability- this is the duration of attracting attention to the same object or to the same task. It can be determined by peripheral and central factors. Stability, determined by peripheral factors, does not exceed 2-3 seconds, after which attention begins to fluctuate. The stability of central attention can span a significantly longer interval – up to several minutes. It is clear that fluctuations in peripheral attention are not excluded; it returns all the time to the same object. At the same time, the duration of attracting central attention, according to S. L. Rubinstein, depends on the ability to constantly reveal new content in an object. We can say that the more interesting an object is for us, the more stable our attention will be. Sustainability of attention is closely related to its concentration.
Concentration determined by the unity of two important factors- increasing signal intensity when the field of perception is limited.
Under distribution understand the subjectively experienced ability of a person to hold a certain number of heterogeneous objects in the center of attention at the same time. It is this quality that makes it possible to perform several actions at once, keeping them in the field of attention. Many have heard about the phenomenal abilities of Julius Caesar, who, according to legend, could do seven unrelated things at the same time. It is also known that Napoleon could simultaneously dictate seven important diplomatic documents to his secretaries. However, there is every reason to assume that only one type of conscious mental activity occurs at the same time, and the subjective feeling of the simultaneous performance of several is due to a rapid sequential switching from one to another. Thus, the distribution of attention is essentially the reverse side of its switching.
Switchability determined by the speed of transition from one type of activity to another. Important role This characteristic can be easily demonstrated by analyzing such a well-known and widespread phenomenon as scattering, which boils down mainly to poor switchability.
Many jokes are about the absent-mindedness of scientists. However, their absent-mindedness is often the flip side of maximum composure and concentration on the main subject of interest: they are so immersed in their thoughts that when faced with everyday trifles they do not switch and can find themselves in a funny position. Here are some facts of this kind. Much has been said about the absent-mindedness of the famous composer and chemist A.P. Borodin. Once, when he had guests, tired, he began to say goodbye to them, saying that it was time for him to go home, since he had a lecture tomorrow, and went to get dressed in the hallway. Or such a case. Borodin went abroad with his wife. While checking passports at the border checkpoint, the official asked his wife's name. Due to his absent-mindedness, Borodin could not remember her name. The official looked at him suspiciously. At this time, his wife, Ekaterina Sergeevna, entered the room, and Borodin rushed to her: “Katya! For God’s sake, what’s your name?”
This story is also known. N. E. Zhukovsky comes to his home, calls, and from behind the door they ask: “Who do you want?” He responded: “Tell me, is the owner at home?” - "No". - “And the hostess?” - “There is no hostess either. What should I convey?” - “Tell me that Zhukovsky came.”
And one more fact. Once upon a time, the famous mathematician Hilbert had a party. After one of the guests arrived, Madame Gilbert took her husband aside and told him: “David, go and change your tie.” Gilbert left. An hour passed and he still did not appear. The alarmed housewife went in search of her husband and, looking into the bedroom, found him in bed. He was fast asleep. When he woke up, he remembered that, having taken off his tie, he automatically began to undress further and, putting on his pajamas, went to bed. Here we are again faced with the deep interconnectedness of all characteristics of attention.
What is the reason for the described absent-mindedness? Mainly that, having developed everyday stereotypes, scientists took advantage of every opportunity to remove from consciousness control over their execution or timely switching to another program and thereby free up the field of attention for solving the main scientific problem.
Now let's turn to the following characteristic of attention - objectivity. As has already been emphasized, the central mechanisms of attention operate by changing the sensitivity (thresholds) of sensory organs of different modalities. But a person operates with specific objects, and not with a generalized modality. For example, you can listen to an orchestra without noticing a neighbor’s cough or the noise of a fan, watch a movie without noticing the hat of the viewer sitting in front, that is, highlight certain complexes of signals in accordance with central settings, personal significance, and relevance.
The mentioned characteristics of attention (stability, concentration, etc.) are to some extent characteristic not only of humans, but also of animals. But a special property of attention - voluntariness - is truly human. Animals have only involuntary attention.
TYPES OF ATTENTION
free- consciously regulated, focused on the object.
Involuntary- does not arise on purpose, but under the influence of the characteristics of objects and phenomena, such attention allows you to navigate changes in the environment.
Post-voluntary– arises consciously after the voluntary and does not require effort in order not to be distracted.
In the process of perception, with appropriate attention, a person creates subjective images of objective objects and phenomena that directly affect his sensory organs. Some of these images arise and change during sensations and perceptions. But there are images that remain after the cessation of sensations and perceptions or when these processes switch to other objects. Such images are called representations.
Ideas and their connections (associations) can persist in a person for a long time. Unlike images of perception, ideas are caused by images of memory.
We offer an interesting test (No. 4), with which you can check whether you have a good memory. After all, in everyday life we often have to remember a lot of different information.
Remember the words below along with serial numbers, under which they are listed.
Memory - this is a reflection of what was previously perceived, experienced, accomplished and comprehended by a person. It is characterized by processes such as capturing, storing, reproducing and processing a variety of information by a person. These memory processes are always in unity, but in each specific case one of them becomes the most active.
There are two types of memory: genetic (hereditary) and lifetime.
Hereditary memory stores information that determines the anatomical and physiological structure of the organism during development and the innate forms of species behavior (instincts). It depends less on the living conditions of the body compared to the lifetime accumulated long-term memory. Information in hereditary memory is stored in DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) molecules, consisting of long chains coiled into spirals. Moreover, each cell of the body contains all hereditary information. As a carrier of hereditary information, DNA has a number of special properties. It is resistant to damaging factors and is capable of correcting some of its damage, which stabilizes its information composition. These and a number of other properties ensure the reliability of hereditary information.
Lifetime memory is a repository of information received from birth to death. It depends significantly more on external conditions. There are several types and forms of lifetime memory. One of the types of lifetime memory - imprinting - is intermediate between genetic and lifetime memory.
Imprinting is a form of memory observed only in the early period of development, immediately after birth. Imprinting consists of instantly establishing a very stable specific connection between a person or animal and a specific object in the external environment. This connection can manifest itself in following any moving object first shown to the animal in the first hours of life, in approaching it, touching it, etc. Such reactions persist for a long time, which is considered an example of learning and long-term memorization from a single presentation. Imprinting differs significantly from ordinary memorization in that long-term non-reinforcement does not weaken the response, but it is limited to a short, well-defined period in the life cycle and is irreversible. In ordinary learning, what is shown last has (other things being equal conditions of significance, probability, etc.) the greatest influence on behavior, whereas in imprinting, the object shown first has greater significance. The main thing here is not the novelty of the stimulus, but its primacy.
So, it is easy to see that imprinting as a form of lifetime memory is very close to hereditary in terms of strength, incorruptibility of the trace and the inevitable nature of its manifestations.
The following types of intravital memory are distinguished: motor, figurative, emotional and symbolic (verbal and logical).
Motor memory detected very early. This is primarily a memory for posture, body position. Motor memory underlies professional and sports skills, dance figures and countless automatic skills, such as the habit of looking first to the left and then to the right when crossing the street. Reaching full development earlier than other forms, motor memory in some people remains leading for the rest of their lives, while in others other types of memory play a leading role.
One of the forms of figurative memory is visual. Its distinctive feature is that during the period of holding the image in memory, it undergoes a certain transformation. The following changes were discovered that occur with the visual image in the process of preservation: simplification (omission of details), some exaggeration of individual details, transformation of the figure into a more symmetrical one (more uniform). The shape stored in memory can be rounded, expanded, and sometimes its position and orientation change. During the process of saving, the image is also transformed in color. Rarely encountered and unexpected images are visually reproduced most clearly and vividly. On the one hand, these transformations of the image in memory make it less accurate compared to the image in verbal memory. On the other hand, these transformations can be beneficial - turn the image into a general scheme and, to a certain extent, make it a symbol. Visual figurative memory is difficult to control voluntarily. It is good to remember only the special, the extraordinary - this does not mean having a good memory.
In A.P. Chekhov’s play “The Seagull,” an unlucky writer compares himself with a talented one: “He [the talented one] on the dam has a glistening neck from a broken bottle and a black shadow from a mill wheel - so the moonlit night is ready, and I have a trembling the light of the moon, and the quiet twinkling of the stars, and the distant sounds of the piano, fading in the quiet fragrant air." Everyone has perceived and read the last description many times and therefore it does not evoke a vivid image. On the contrary, the shine of the neck of a broken bottle is an unexpected and therefore memorable image.
Figurative memory is usually more pronounced in children and adolescents. In adults, the leading memory, as a rule, is not figurative, but logical. However, there are professions where it is useful to have a developed figurative memory. It was found that you can effectively train figurative memory if you reproduce given pictures mentally in a relaxed, passive state with your eyes closed before going to bed.
Emotional memory determines the reproduction of a certain emotional state upon repeated exposure to the situation in which this emotional state arose for the first time. It is important to emphasize that this state is reproduced in combination with elements of the situation and a subjective attitude towards it. The peculiarities of this memory are the speed of formation of traces, their special strength and involuntary reproduction. There are claims that sensory memory, on the basis of which emotional memory develops, is already present in a six-month-old child and reaches its peak by three to five years. It is the basis of caution, likes and dislikes, as well as the primary sense of recognition (“familiar” and “alien”). A person retains strong, emotionally charged impressions the longest. Investigating the stability of emotional memory, V.N. Myasishchev noted that when schoolchildren were shown pictures, the accuracy of their memorization depended on the emotional attitude towards them - positive, negative or indifferent. With a positive attitude, they remembered all 50 pictures, with a negative attitude, only 28, and with an indifferent attitude, only 7. Emotional memory is distinguished by the fact that it is almost never accompanied by an attitude towards a revived feeling, as a memory of a previously experienced feeling. Thus, a person who was frightened or bitten by a dog in childhood then gets scared every time he meets a dog, but does not realize what this feeling is connected with. Arbitrary reproduction of feelings is almost impossible. Along with imprinting the sensory state that accompanied the perception of this or that information, emotional memory provides quick and lasting memorization of the information itself that caused this emotional state, but one cannot always rely on the accuracy of its storage.
Let's give an example. The following experiment was carried out: students sat in the audience, bowing their heads over exam papers. Suddenly the door burst open and a young woman, approximately 1 meter 50 centimeters tall, dressed in jeans, a plaid cowboy shirt and a Tyrolean green hat, burst into the room. She quickly threw a carrot at a student sitting in the front row and shouted: “Federal herring! You stole my grades.” At the same time, a clapping sound was heard from the corridor outside. A student in the front row, wearing a sports society uniform, screamed and fell to the floor. When the attacker ran out of the room, two men dressed as orderlies ran into the classroom, pulled the victim to his feet and quickly led him out. The entire scene took a minute from the moment the attacker ran in until the victim was taken out. The impact of emotional shock and surprise was clearly demonstrated when students were asked to immediately describe the full picture of the events they witnessed by answering a series of questions. The result was amazing. Here are some questions and answers. Who was the attacker? One student wrote: "...big, Germanic type...like a Hollywood lifeguard." How was the attacker dressed? "In the uniform of a railway conductor." What were the weapons? "The killer used a knife with an open blade." Who was the victim? "A man wearing khaki pants and a blue sweater." Since the incident was highly unexpected and had a dramatic appearance, most witnesses did not remember either the appearance of the person entering or the circumstances of the invasion. In the described experimental situation, the deformation of traces in memory can only be attributed to emotional influence, because the time factor is excluded, and forgetting cannot be attributed to the transformation of information over a long period of storage.
Symbolic memory
divided into verbal and logical. The verbal one is formed in the process of lifelong development following the figurative one and reaches its highest strength by 10-13 years. Distinctive feature its is fidelity. Another (and this is its advantage over figurative memory) is a significantly greater dependence on will. Reproducing a visual image is not always in our power, while repeating a phrase is much easier. However, even with verbal storage, distortions are observed. Thus, when memorizing a series of words, the initial and final ones are most accurately reproduced; in addition, the detail in the story that attracted a person’s attention tends to move to the beginning during retelling. Accuracy of verbal reproduction is ensured not only by repetition, but also by abbreviation. The text can be shortened and thereby facilitate the work of memory: the shorter it is, the fewer errors during reproduction. Brevity is effective not only due to simple cutting, but also due to the development of rules for highlighting the most essential. Gradually, logical memory develops through generalization.
The relationship between verbal memory and visual memory is complex. On the one hand, verbal memory itself is more accurate than visual memory, on the other hand, it can influence visual images stored in memory, enhancing their transformation or suppressing them completely. In this case, visual images in memory can be transformed to more closely match their verbal descriptions.
Based on the time it takes to store material, there are four main forms of memory:
- instant
(or iconic - memory-image) is associated with retaining an accurate and complete picture of what has just been perceived by the senses, without any processing of the information received. This memory is a direct reflection of information by the senses. Its duration is from 0.1 to 0.5 seconds and it represents the complete residual impression that arises from the direct perception of stimuli;
- short-term
is a method of storing information for a short period of time. The duration of retention of mnemonic traces here does not exceed several tens of seconds, on average about 20 (without repetition). In short-term memory, not a complete, but only a generalized image of what is perceived, its most essential elements, is stored. This memory works without a preliminary conscious intention to memorize, but with an intention to subsequently reproduce the material;
- operational
called memory designed to store information for a certain, predetermined period, ranging from several seconds to several days. The storage period of information in this memory is determined by the task faced by a person, and is designed only for solving this problem. After this, information may disappear from RAM;
– long-term
memory is capable of storing information for an almost unlimited period. Information that has entered the storage of long-term memory can be reproduced by a person as many times as necessary without loss. Moreover, repeated and systematic reproduction of this information only strengthens its traces in long-term memory.
Features of memorization and recollection act as qualities of memory. These include volume (measured by the number of objects recalled immediately after their single perception), speed (measured by speed, that is, the amount of time spent memorizing and recalling the required material), accuracy (measured by the degree of similarity of what is recalled with what is being recalled). perceived), duration (measured by the amount of time during which, without repeated perceptions, what was remembered can be recalled).
To sum up all of the above, we can emphasize that memory is a mental process of imprinting and reproducing a person’s experience. Thanks to memory, a person’s past experience does not disappear without a trace, but is preserved in the form of ideas.
Sensations, perceptions and ideas of a person reflect mainly those objects and phenomena or their individual properties that directly affect the analyzers. These mental processes, together with involuntary attention and visual-figurative memory, represent the sensory foundations of human cognition of objective reality.
But sensory foundations do not exhaust all the possibilities of human reflection. This is evidenced by the fact that a person does not feel or perceive a lot, but learns. He, for example, does not hear ultra-short or very weak sounds, does not feel small temperature changes, does not see the movement of light or radio waves, does not feel the processes occurring inside atoms, etc. The limitations of sensory cognition are especially acute in the reflection of the past and future, that is, something that objectively does not exist and does not affect a person at a specific moment in his life activity.
Despite such limitations, a person still reflects what is inaccessible to his sensory knowledge. This happens through thinking.
Thinking - this is a generalized reflection of objective reality in its natural, most essential connections and relationships. It is characterized by community and unity with speech.
In other words, thinking is a mental process of cognition associated with the discovery of subjectively new knowledge, with problem solving, with the creative transformation of reality.
Thinking manifests itself when solving any problem that arises before a person, as long as it is relevant, does not have a ready-made solution, and a powerful motive prompts a person to look for a way out. The immediate impetus for the development of the thought process is the emergence of a task, which, in turn, appears as a consequence of the awareness of the discrepancy between known to man principles and methods of performing actions and new conditions that preclude their application. The first stage, immediately following the awareness of the presence of a task, is usually associated with a delay in impulsive reactions. Such a delay creates a pause necessary for orientation in its conditions, analysis of components, highlighting the most significant ones and correlating them with each other. Preliminary orientation in the conditions of the task is a mandatory initial stage of any thinking process.
The next key stage is associated with the selection of one of the alternatives and the formation of a general solution scheme. In the process of such a choice, some possible moves in the decision reveal themselves to be more probable and push aside inadequate alternatives. At the same time, not only the general features of this and similar situations from a person’s past experience are extracted from memory, but also information about the results that were previously obtained with similar motivations and emotional states. There is a continuous scanning of information in memory, and the dominant motivation directs this search. The nature of motivation (its strength and duration) determines the information retrieved from memory. A gradual increase in emotional tension leads to an expansion of the range of hypotheses extracted from memory, but excessive stress can narrow this range, which determines the well-known tendency towards stereotypical decisions in stressful situations. However, even with maximum access to information, a complete search of hypotheses is irrational due to the large expenditure of time.
To limit the field of hypotheses and control the order of search, a special mechanism is used, which is closely related to the person’s system of attitudes and his emotional mood. Before going through and evaluating possible approaches to solving a problem, you need to understand it, and what does it mean to understand? Understanding is usually determined by the presence of intermediate concepts connecting the conditions of the problem and the required result, and the transposability of the solution. The solution will be transposeable if a general solution principle is identified for a class of problems, that is, an invariant is identified that can be used to solve problems of other classes. Learning to identify such a general principle means obtaining a universal tool for solving problems. This is helped by training in reformulating the problem.
The main elements with which thought operates are concepts(reflection of general and essential features of any objects and phenomena), judgments(establishing a connection between objects and phenomena; it can be true and false), inferences(the conclusion of a new judgment from one or more judgments), and also images And representation.
The basic operations of thinking include analysis(mentally dividing the whole into parts and then comparing them), synthesis(combining individual parts into a whole, constructing a whole from analytically specified parts), specification(application of general laws to a specific case, the inverse operation of generalization), abstraction(isolating any side or aspect of a phenomenon that in reality does not exist as an independent one), generalization(mental association of objects and phenomena that are similar in some way), as well as comparison And classification.
It is important to note that the main mental operations can be represented as reversible pairs: analysis - synthesis, identifying similarities - identifying differences, abstraction - concretization.
The main types of thinking are theoretical(which, in turn, includes conceptual and figurative), as well as practical (to it includes visual-figurative and visual-effective).
The main properties of the mind include:
- curiosity And inquisitiveness(the desire to learn as much and thoroughly as possible);
- depth(the ability to penetrate into the essence of objects and phenomena);
- flexibility(the ability to correctly navigate new circumstances);
- criticality(the ability to question the conclusions made and promptly abandon a wrong decision);
- logic(ability to think harmoniously and consistently);
- rapidity(the ability to make the right decisions in the shortest possible time).
When studying thought processes, several types of barriers were discovered - specific obstacles in thinking, a kind of taboo. These are self-restraints associated with the inertia and conventional nature of our thinking, and admiration for living authorities (“N.N. himself was skeptical about the prospects of work in this direction”) and dead (“Poincaré even pointed out the insolubleness of a similar problem”), and prohibitions , based on a false analogy ("it's like creating perpetual motion machine"). One of the most effective ways to suppress new ideas is the idea that no one has the right to doubt any decision unless he himself offers a better or more demonstrative one.
To overcome the listed barriers, it is useful to analyze the entire field of hypotheses, regardless of their expected productivity, at the beginning of solving a problem. And only as the analysis progresses should it focus on an increasingly narrower area that is more closely related to the problem being solved.
To make it easier to overcome these difficulties and not to miss important hypotheses during a random search, a special method has been developed - morphological analysis. It consists of dividing the problem into functional elements and sequentially studying all possible compositions of these elements in all the diversity of their parameters. Another way to direct associations in the right direction is the method of “focal objects”. Within the framework of this approach, an analysis is made of the combination of properties of the object being studied and several random, but forcibly selected ones.
Another way to avoid stereotypes in solving is the ability to purposefully modify, “shake up” the conditions of the problem. For this purpose, you can change the size of an object either downwards - to zero, or up - to infinity; you can also vary the lifetime of the object from microintervals to infinity. The same effect is achieved when splitting an object into parts, and when searching for a solution for individual parts of the fragmented object. It is advisable to use the transfer of the solution to another space or the introduction of unevenness in the spatial features of the environment or object.
Conceptual thinking provides another opportunity to optimize the solution to a problem. The use of concepts of different levels allows, moving from less generalized concepts to more generalized ones and back, to escape from the beaten path of solution.
One of the effective ways to activate thinking is a hint. It can be offered either at different (early and late) stages of solving the problem, or at the same stage, use hints of different levels - more or less specific. As a hint for solving the main problem, you can use an auxiliary problem, which is less difficult, but contains the principle of solving the main one, which can be transferred. Let's consider an example from the book by A.V. Brushlinsky. Problem: will a candle burn in a spaceship in zero gravity? Solution: weightlessness excludes convection, and combustion is impossible, since combustion products are not removed from the flame and it goes out due to the lack of oxygen. At the first stages of solving this problem, two easier auxiliary hint problems can be proposed, the solution of which is also based on the principles of convection and diffusion. Why are water heating radiators located in the room below and not upstairs? (Convection.) Why does cream in milk settle faster in a cold room? (Diffusion.)
They use a variety of hints: reporting the next step in the solution, additional data, giving an analogy. However, one must keep in mind that a hint that coincides in time with the formation of one’s own decision can sharply slow it down or completely disrupt the so-called locking effect. The blocking effect often appears in an exam if the examiner's hint, offered at the moment when the examinee has almost achieved the result, destroys the mental scheme of his own solution. He cannot even understand what is being suggested to him, he is so absorbed in the implementation of his decision.
All of the above methods of overcoming thought barriers are very effective when it is necessary to find a new, original approach to the analysis of theoretical and technical problems. However, in everyday life, a person is forced to solve problems of interpersonal communication every day, and then it turns out that here it is even more difficult for him to free himself from the strict control of traditional and stereotypical approaches. In recent years, even a separate direction in psychology - the theory of attribution - has begun to develop rapidly, studying the methods of everyday, everyday thinking. The field of application of the efforts of researchers in this area is the study of the influences of the social environment on how a person, forced to act in conditions of information uncertainty, puts forward hypotheses about the causes of the observed behavior of other people.
Carl Jung considered two types of people according to the nature of their thinking: intuitive (characterized by the predominance of emotions over logic and the dominance of the right hemisphere of the brain over the left) and mental (characterized by rationality and the predominance of the left hemisphere of the brain over the right, the primacy of logic over feelings).
In psychology, the problem of thinking is closely related to the problem of speech. Human thinking and speech proceed on the basis of common elements - words. Speech arose simultaneously with thinking in the process of socio-historical development of man.
Speech is a system of sound signals, written signs and symbols used by humans to represent, process, store and transmit information.
Speech is the main acquisition of humanity, a catalyst for its improvement. Indeed, it is omnipotent; it makes accessible to knowledge those objects that a person perceives directly, that is, with which real interaction is achievable. In addition, language allows one to operate with objects that a person has never encountered before, that is, those that were not part of his individual experience, but appropriated to him from universal human experience. That is why they say that language marks the emergence of a special form of reflection of reality. The emergence of oral and written speech determined the specifics of the development of thinking.
It is known that there are concepts of varying degrees of generality and each concept has a corresponding name - a word (symbol). The participation of speech in this aspect of thinking is undeniable. It is much more difficult to imagine images that have gone through several stages of generalization. The development of written language allows us to trace the gradual transition from specific images to generalized symbols. At the origins of written language in ancient times, there were pictures that realistically depicted objects, but the relationships between objects were not depicted in them. In modern language, a word has lost any visual resemblance to the object it denotes, and the relationships between objects are represented by the grammatical structure of a sentence. The written word is the result of many stages of generalization of the original concrete visual image.
The impact of speech on other higher mental processes is no less significant and manifests itself in many ways as a factor that organizes the structure of perception, shapes the architectonics of memory and determines the selectivity of attention.
The generalized image of perception is compared with the name, and thus the reverse influence of the word on subsequent perception is predetermined. Each visual picture is perceived by a person in accordance with the concept to which he attributes the configuration.
The influence of speech on memory is no less clearly evident. As an example, we can recall that colors presented to a person for memorization are shifted in his memory to the names of the primary colors of the spectrum. However, as soon as a person is placed in conditions where he must use other categories to designate color, this shift is not observed. So, if you ask to remember a color, calling it cherry, orange or violet, and thereby correlate it with the colors of a specific, well-known object, that is, use different concepts than in the first case, then a shift of a different kind is observed - in the direction of the properties of the named object . In a word, a hypothesis put forward on the basis of previous experience (memory) makes perception tendentious.
Another example: the designation in different languages of a flower called “snowdrop” in Russian, “Schneeglockchen” in German, “perce-niege” in French, and “snowdrop” in English. The origin of this word in Russian is associated with the early appearance of the flower in spring (under the snow), that is, the name draws attention to the time factor; in German, the word means “snow bell,” indicating its shape. The French name - "perce-niege" (drilling snow) is associated with movement. The English name "snowdrop" is based on another feature - shape. Although all these names for snowdrop refer to the same flower, a speaker in Russian provides additional information about the time of appearance of this flower, in German and English - about its shape, in French - about the method of its appearance. This example once again shows that a word has a significant influence on the content of information about an object stored in memory.
As special studies have shown, each word in memory is naturally connected with other words by more or less strong connections (associations). The structure where even weak connections can be traced is called the semantic field of a given word. It is assumed that the center of the field is characterized by closer connections - higher probabilities of combining these words, and the periphery contains words that form rarely occurring combinations. This organization of the semantic field of a word is manifested, for example, in the understanding of the figurative meaning of the word and humor. It is known that the use of unlikely combinations of words often causes laughter, but only active mastery of the entire semantic field of the word allows you to understand the essence of the joke and feel the low probability of the combination of words. This implies the importance of studying extensive vocabulary (and not just grammar) when mastering foreign languages.
Speaking about the main types of speech, we must emphasize that the process of exchanging thoughts is carried out in the form of oral and written speech, but it is necessary to remember about one more type - internal speech pronounced mentally. It does not perform the function of communication, but serves to carry out the thinking process (its main feature is precisely that the words are pronounced silently and, as a rule, do not have sound design; it differs from colloquial, external speech in its conciseness, brevity, fragmentary character).
Speech is also divided into active(speech of the speaker, writer) and passive(speech of the listener, reader).
A person’s speech in general and his individual speeches to those listening can be characterized by content, expressiveness and form.
A speaker in front of an audience must have a well-trained voice. The success of conveying content directed not only to the mind, but also to the feelings of the listeners, largely depends on this. It is impossible to convey the full depth of the content, to influence the audience both emotionally and aesthetically, if the voice is hoarse, hoarse and monotonous. In addition, a hoarse speaker causes listeners an irresistible need to clear their throat by coughing. Speaking of cough. The audience's cough somehow prevented the lecturer from starting his speech. In response to his request to stop coughing, the audience responded: “What do you mean stop? The cough is uncontrollable.” “Imagine - we manage,” the lecturer answered and told about the Narodnaya Volya member N.A. Morozov, who, having found himself in the Shlisselburg fortress with a focus of tuberculosis in the lungs and knowing that coughing accelerates the painful process, by an effort of will ordered himself not to cough. When he was released 30 years later, the doctors were amazed: not a trace of tuberculosis remained. “By the way,” the lecturer finished, “pay attention: during the time I was talking, not one of you coughed.”
Speech should be balanced in pace. Haste, usually caused by the speaker's timidity, creates the impression that the speaker is "getting off." Sluggish speech is also ineffective, as it causes indifference to the topic of the speech. Reading a lecture very slowly leads to a weakening of perception; pauses that occur between words impose additional semantic load on each word; words acquire an unreasonably greater emotional and substantive significance, which makes perception difficult.
The understandability of the speech language depends on many factors: vocabulary, length of sentences, degree of syntactic complexity of the speech, its saturation with abstract expressions, foreign and special terms. It is very important to use words correctly. The inconsistency of the word used with its generally accepted meaning or stylistic norms causes negative emotions in listeners, which can negate the purpose of the speech. Overly pompous expressions make people laugh, trivial ones irritate, and incorrectly used words cause ridicule and irony. The outstanding Russian lawyer and orator A.F. Koni, who knew well the value of the accuracy of constructing a phrase, wrote: “It is worth rearranging the words in the popular expression “blood and milk” and saying “milk with blood” to see the meaning of a separate word put in its place ".
It is necessary to pay attention to the vocabulary of speech. Linguistically, judgments must be formulated in such a way as to correspond to the stock of knowledge of the listeners and, to some extent, to the nature of their expectations - social attitudes. An example of the flexible following of the changing situation in France in writing can be found in E.V. Tarle, who provides an observation of the specific selection of words in the Parisian press to describe Napoleon’s progress from the moment of his landing in Juan Bay until his entry into Paris (the Hundred Days period). The first publication: “The Corsican monster landed in Juan Bay”, the second - “The cannibal is approaching Grasse”, the third - “The usurper entered Grenoble”, the fourth - “Bonaparte took Lyon”, the fifth - “Napoleon is approaching Fontainebleau”, the sixth - “ His Imperial Majesty is expected today in his faithful Paris." This entire literary gamut was extracted from the same newspapers, published under the same editorial staff for several days: situations changed and, along with them, words.
Lecture 7. Cognitive mental processes
Cognitive mental processes are channels of our communication with the world. Incoming information about specific phenomena and objects undergoes changes and turns into an image. All human knowledge about the world around us is the result of the integration of individual knowledge obtained through cognitive mental processes. Each of these processes has its own characteristics and its own organization. But at the same time, proceeding simultaneously and harmoniously, these processes interact with each other imperceptibly for a person and, as a result, create for him a single, holistic, continuous picture of the objective world.
1. Feeling- the simplest cognitive mental process, during which there is a reflection of individual properties, qualities, aspects of reality, its objects and phenomena, connections between them, as well as internal states of the body that directly affect the human senses. Sensation is the source of our knowledge about the world and ourselves. All living organisms that have a nervous system have the ability to sense sensations. Conscious sensations are characteristic only of living beings with a brain. The main role of sensations is essentially to quickly convey to the central nervous system information about the state of both the external and internal environment of the body. All sensations arise as a result of the influence of irritating stimuli on the corresponding sensory organs. In order for a sensation to arise, it is extremely important that the stimulus causing it reaches a certain value, called absolute lower threshold of sensation. Each type of sensation has its own thresholds.
But the senses have the ability to adapt to changing conditions; therefore, the thresholds of sensations are not constant and can change when moving from one environmental condition to another. This ability is called adaptation of sensations. For example, when moving from light to dark, the sensitivity of the eye to various stimuli changes tens of times. The speed and completeness of adaptation of various sensory systems is not the same: in tactile sensations, with smell, a high degree of adaptation is noted, and the lowest degree is with pain, since pain is a signal of a dangerous disruption in the functioning of the body, and rapid adaptation of pain sensations can threaten its death.
The English physiologist C. Sherrington proposed a classification of sensations: Exteroceptive sensations- sensations that arise when external stimuli influence human analyzers located on the surface of the body.
Proprioceptive sensations- ϶ᴛᴏ sensations reflecting the movement and position of parts of the human body.
Interoceptive sensations- ϶ᴛᴏ sensations reflecting the state of the internal environment of the human body.
According to the time of occurrence of sensations there are relevant And irrelevant.
For example, a sour taste in the mouth from lemon, a feeling of so-called “factual” pain in the amputated limb.
All sensations have the following characteristics:
quality– an essential feature of sensations that allows one to distinguish one type from another (for example, auditory from visual);
intensity– a quantitative characteristic of sensations, which is determined by the strength of the current stimulus;
duration– a temporary characteristic of sensations, determined by the time of exposure to the stimulus.
2. Perception- ϶ᴛᴏ a holistic reflection of objects and phenomena of the objective world with their direct impact at the moment on the senses. Only humans and some higher representatives of the animal world have the ability to perceive the world in the form of images. Together with the processes of sensation, perception provides direct orientation in the surrounding world. It involves isolating the basic and most significant features from the complex of recorded features, while simultaneously abstracting from the unimportant ones (Fig. 9). Unlike sensations, which reflect individual qualities of reality, with the help of perception an integral picture of reality is created. Perception is always subjective, since people perceive the same information differently based on abilities, interests, life experience, etc.
Let us consider perception as an intellectual process of successive, interconnected acts of searching for signs necessary and sufficient for the formation of an image:
‣‣‣ primary selection of a number of features from the entire flow of information and making a decision that they belong to one specific object;
‣‣‣ search in memory for a complex of signs similar in sensations;
‣‣‣ assignment of the perceived object to a certain category;
‣‣‣ search for additional signs that confirm or refute the correctness of the decision made;
‣‣‣ final conclusion about what object is perceived.
To the main properties of perception relate: integrity– internal organic relationship between parts and the whole in the image;
objectivity– the object is perceived by a person as a separate physical body isolated in space and time;
generality– assignment of each image to a certain class of objects;
constancy– the relative constancy of the perception of the image, the preservation of its parameters by the object regardless of the conditions of its perception (distance, lighting, etc.);
meaningfulness– understanding the essence of the perceived object in the process of perception;
selectivity– preferential selection of some objects over others in the process of perception.
Perception happens externally directed(perception of objects and phenomena of the external world) and internally directed(perception of one’s own states, thoughts, feelings, etc.).
According to the time of occurrence, perception occurs relevant And irrelevant.
The perception must be wrong(or illusory), for example, visual or auditory illusions.
The development of perception is very important for educational activities. Developed perception helps to quickly assimilate a larger amount of information with less energy expenditure.
3. Presentation- ϶ᴛᴏ the mental process of reflecting objects and phenomena that are not currently perceived, but are recreated on the basis of previous experience. Ideas do not arise on their own, but as a result of practical activity.
Since the basis of ideas is past perceptual experience, the main classification of ideas is built on the basis of classifications of types of sensations and perceptions.
Basic properties of views:
fragmentation– the presented image often lacks any of its features, sides, or parts;
instability(or impermanence)– the representation of any image sooner or later disappears from the field of human consciousness;
variability– when a person enriches himself with new experience and knowledge, a change in ideas about the objects of the surrounding world occurs.
4. Imagination- ϶ᴛᴏ cognitive mental process, which consists in the creation by a person of new images on the basis of his existing ideas. Imagination is closely related to human emotional experiences. Imagination differs from perception in that its images do not always correspond to reality; they may contain, to a greater or lesser extent, elements of fantasy and fiction. Imagination is the basis of visual-figurative thinking, which allows a person to navigate a situation and solve problems without direct practical intervention. It especially helps in cases where practical actions are either impossible, or difficult, or impractical.
When classifying types of imagination, they proceed from the basic characteristics - degree of volitional effort And degree of activity.
Recreating Imagination manifests itself when it is extremely important for a person to recreate the representation of an object from its description (for example, when reading a description of geographical places or historical events, as well as when meeting literary heroes).
Dream- ϶ᴛᴏ imagination aimed at the desired future. In a dream, a person always creates an image of what he wants, whereas in creative images the desire of their creator is not always embodied. A dream is a process of imagination that is not included in creative activity, that is, it does not lead to the immediate and direct receipt of an objective product in the form of a work of art, invention, product, etc.
Imagination is closely related to creativity. Creative imagination characterized by the fact that a person transforms his existing ideas and creates a new image on his own - not according to a familiar image, but completely different from it. In practical activity, the phenomenon of imagination is, first of all, associated with the process artistic creativity in cases where the author is no longer satisfied with recreating reality using realistic methods. Turning to unusual, bizarre, unrealistic images makes it possible to enhance the intellectual, emotional and moral impact of art on a person.
Creation- ϶ᴛᴏ activity that generates new material and spiritual values. Creativity reveals the individual’s need for self-expression, self-actualization and the realization of one’s creative potential. In psychology, the following are distinguished: criteria for creative activity:
creative activity is an activity that leads to obtaining a new result, a new product;
since a new product (result) must be obtained by chance, the process of obtaining the product itself must be new (new method, technique, method, etc.);
the result of creative activity should not be obtained using a simple logical conclusion or action according to a known algorithm;
Creative activity, as a rule, is aimed not so much at solving a problem already posed by someone, but at independently seeing the problem and identifying new, original solutions;
creative activity is usually characterized by the presence emotional experiences, preceding the moment of finding a solution;
creative activity requires special motivation.
Analyzing the nature of creativity, G. Lindsay, K. Hull and R. Thompson tried to find out what interferes with the manifestation of creative abilities in humans. Οʜᴎ discovered that interferes with creativity not only insufficient development of certain abilities, but also the presence of certain personality traits, for example:
– a tendency to conformism, i.e. the desire to be like others, not to differ from the majority of people around them;
– fear of seeming stupid or funny;
– fear or reluctance to criticize others due to the idea of criticism formed since childhood as something negative and offensive;
– excessive conceit, i.e. complete satisfaction with one’s personality;
– predominant critical thinking, i.e., aimed only at identifying shortcomings, and not at finding ways to eradicate them.
5. Thinking- ϶ᴛᴏ the highest cognitive process, the generation of new knowledge, a generalized and indirect reflection of reality by a person in its essential connections and relationships. The essence of this cognitive mental process is the generation of new knowledge based on man’s transformation of reality. This is the most complex cognitive process, the highest form of reflection of reality.
Subject-effective thinking is carried out during actions with objects with direct perception of the object in reality.
Visual-figurative thinking occurs when imagining object images.
Abstract-logical thinking is the result of logical operations with concepts. Thinking wears motivated And purposeful nature, all operations of the thought process are caused by the needs, motives, interests of the individual, his goals and objectives.
Thinking is always individually. It makes it possible to understand the patterns of the material world, cause-and-effect relationships in nature and social life.
The source of mental activity is practice.
The physiological basis of thinking is reflex activity of the brain.
An extremely important feature of thinking is inseparable connection with speech. We always think in words, even if we don’t say them out loud.
Active research into thinking has been conducted since the 17th century. Initially, thinking was actually identified with logic. All theories of thinking can be divided into two groups: the first are based on the hypothesis that a person has innate intellectual abilities that do not change over the course of life, the second - on the idea that mental abilities are formed and developed under the influence of life experience.
To the main mental operations relate:
analysis– mental division of the integral structure of the reflected object into its constituent elements;
synthesis– reconnection of individual elements into an integral structure;
comparison– establishing relationships of similarity and difference;
generalization– identification of common features based on the unification of essential properties or similarities;
abstraction– highlighting any aspect of a phenomenon that in reality does not exist as an independent one;
specification– abstraction from general features and highlighting, emphasizing the particular, individual;
systematization(or classification)– mental distribution of objects or phenomena into certain groups, subgroups.
In addition to the types and operations listed above, there are thinking processes:
judgment– a statement containing a specific thought;
inference– a series of logically related statements leading to new knowledge;
definition of concepts– a system of judgments about a certain class of objects or phenomena, highlighting their most general characteristics;
induction– derivation of a particular judgment from a general one;
deduction– derivation of a general judgment from particular ones.
Basic quality characteristics of thinking are: independence, initiative, depth, breadth, speed, originality, criticality, etc.
The concept of intelligence is inextricably linked with thinking.
Intelligence- ϶ᴛᴏ the totality of all mental abilities that provide a person with the opportunity to solve various problems. In 1937 ᴦ. D. Wexler (USA) developed tests to measure intelligence. According to Wexler, intelligence is the global ability to act intelligently, think rationally and cope well with life circumstances.
L. Thurstone in 1938, exploring intelligence, identified its primary components:
counting ability– ability to operate with numbers and perform arithmetic operations;
verbal(verbal) flexibility– the ability to find the right words to explain something;
verbal perception– ability to understand oral and written language;
spatial orientation– the ability to imagine various objects in space;
memory;
reasoning ability;
quick perception of similarities and differences between objects.
What determines development of intelligence? Intelligence is influenced by both hereditary factors and environmental conditions. The development of intelligence is influenced by:
‣‣‣ genetic conditioning - the influence of hereditary information received from parents;
‣‣‣ physical and mental state of the mother during pregnancy;
‣‣‣ chromosomal abnormalities;
‣‣‣ environmental living conditions;
‣‣‣ child’s nutritional characteristics;
‣‣‣ social status of the family, etc.
Attempts to create a unified system for “measuring” human intelligence encounter many obstacles, since intelligence includes the ability to perform completely different-quality mental operations. The most popular is the so-called intelligence quotient(abbreviated as IQ), which allows one to correlate the level of an individual’s intellectual capabilities with the average indicators of his age and professional groups.
There is no consensus among scientists about the possibility of obtaining a real assessment of intelligence using tests, since many of them measure not so much innate intellectual abilities as knowledge, skills and abilities acquired during the learning process.
6. Mnemonic processes. Today in psychology there is no single, complete theory of memory, and the study of the phenomenon of memory remains one of the central tasks. Mnemonic processes, or memory processes, are studied by various sciences that consider the physiological, biochemical and psychological mechanisms of memory processes.
Memory- ϶ᴛᴏ a form of mental reflection, which consists in consolidating, preserving and subsequently reproducing past experience, making it possible to reuse it in activity or return to the sphere of consciousness.
Among the first psychologists who began experimental studies of mnemonic processes was the German scientist G. Ebbinghaus, who, by studying the process of memorizing various word combinations, derived a number of laws of memorization.
Memory connects the subject's past with his present and future - the basis of mental activity.
TO memory processes include the following:
1) memorization- a memory process that results in the consolidation of something new by associating it with something previously acquired; memorization is always selective - not everything that affects our senses is stored in memory, but only what is important to a person or has aroused his interest and the greatest emotions;
2) preservation– the process of processing and retaining information;
3) playback– the process of retrieving stored material from memory;
4) forgetting– the process of getting rid of long-received, rarely used information.
One of the most important characteristics is memory quality,ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ is due to:
memorization speed(the number of repetitions required to retain information in memory);
speed of forgetting(the time during which remembered information is stored in memory).
There are several bases for classifying types of memory: according to the nature of mental activity that predominates in the activity, according to the nature of the goals of the activity, according to the duration of consolidation and storage of information, etc.
The work of different types of memory obeys some general laws.
Law of comprehension: The deeper the understanding of what is memorized, the easier it is fixed in memory.
Law of Interest: interesting things are remembered faster because less effort is spent on it.
Installation Law: memorization occurs more easily if a person sets himself the task of perceiving the content and remembering it.
Law of first impression: The brighter the first impression of what is being remembered, the stronger and faster its memorization.
Law of Context: information is more easily remembered if it is correlated with other simultaneous impressions.
Law of volume of knowledge: The more extensive the knowledge on a certain topic, the easier it is to remember new information from this area of knowledge.
Law of the volume of memorized information: The greater the amount of information for simultaneous memorization, the worse it is remembered.
Law of braking: any subsequent memorization inhibits the previous one.
Edge law: What is said (read) at the beginning and end of a series of information is better remembered; the middle of the series is remembered worse.
Law of repetition: repetition promotes better memory.
In psychology, in connection with the study of memory, you can find two terms that are very similar to each other - “mnemonic” and “mnemonic”, the meanings of which are different. Mnemic means ʼʼrelating to memoryʼʼ, and mnemonic– ʼʼrelating to the art of memorizationʼʼ, i.e. mnemonics- ϶ᴛᴏ memorization techniques.
The history of mnemonics goes back to Ancient Greece. Ancient Greek mythology speaks of Mnemosyne, the mother of the nine muses, the goddess of memory and memories. Mnemonics received special development in the 19th century. in connection with the laws of associations that have received theoretical justification. For better memorization, various mnemonics techniques. Let's give examples.
Association method: The more diverse associations that arise when memorizing information, the easier the information is remembered.
Link method: combining information into a single, holistic structure using key words, concepts, etc.
Place method based on visual associations; Having clearly imagined the subject of memorization, you need to mentally combine it with the image of the place, which is easily retrieved from memory; for example, in order to remember information in a certain sequence, it is extremely important to break it down into parts and associate each part with a specific place in a well-known sequence, for example, a route to work, the location of furniture in a room, the location of photographs on the wall and etc.
A well-known way to remember the colors of the rainbow is where the initial letter of each word in a key phrase is the first letter of the color word:
To every – To red
hunter - O range
and wants - and yellow
h nat – h ate
G de – G blue
With goes– With blue
f adhan – f purple
7. Attention- ϶ᴛᴏ voluntary or involuntary direction and concentration of mental activity on any object of perception. The nature and essence of attention cause disagreements in psychological science; there is no consensus among psychologists regarding its essence. The difficulties in explaining the phenomenon of attention are caused by the fact that it is not found in a “pure” form, it is always “attention to something”. Some scientists believe that attention is not an independent process, but is only part of any other psychological process. Others believe that this is an independent process with its own characteristics. Indeed, on the one hand, attention is included in everything psychological processes, on the other hand, attention has observable and measurable characteristics (volume, concentration, switchability, etc.), which are not directly related to other cognitive processes.
Attention is a necessary condition for mastering any type of activity. It depends on the individual typological, age and other characteristics of a person. Taking into account the dependence of personality activity, three types of attention are distinguished.
Involuntary attention– the simplest type of attention. It is often called passive, or forced, since it arises and is maintained independently of human consciousness.
Voluntary attention controlled by a conscious goal, connected with the will of a person. It is also called strong-willed, active or deliberate.
Post-voluntary attention is also purposeful in nature and initially requires volitional efforts, but then the activity itself becomes so interesting that it practically does not require volitional efforts from a person to maintain attention.
Attention has certain parameters and characteristics, which in many ways are a characteristic of human abilities and capabilities. TO basic properties of attention usually include the following:
concentration- ϶ᴛᴏ indicator of the degree of concentration of consciousness on a specific object, the intensity of connection with it; concentration of attention presupposes the formation of a temporary center (focus) of all human psychological activity;
intensity– characterizes the effectiveness of perception, thinking and memory in general;
sustainability– the ability to maintain high levels of concentration and intensity of attention for a long time; determined by the type of nervous system, temperament, motivation (novelty, significance of needs, personal interests), as well as external conditions of human activity;
volume– a quantitative indicator of objects that are in the focus of attention (for an adult – from 4 to 6, for a child – no more than 1–3); the amount of attention depends not only on genetic factors and on the capabilities of the individual’s short-term memory; the characteristics of perceived objects and the professional skills of the subject also matter;
distribution– the ability to focus attention on several objects at the same time; in this case, several focuses (centers) of attention are formed, which makes it possible to perform several actions or monitor several processes simultaneously, without losing any of them from the field of attention;
switching – the ability to more or less easily and fairly quickly transition from one type of activity to another and concentrate on the latter.
Lecture 7. Cognitive mental processes - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Lecture 7. Cognitive mental processes" 2017, 2018.
With the help of such cognitive mental processes as speech, sensation, thinking, memory, attention, a person perceives reality and carries out his life activities.
Features of mental cognitive processes
It is thanks to these processes that the brain responds to influences from the external and internal environment. Without cognitive phenomena, human activity would be in danger. So, without perception, sensations, you would not be able to feel the stimulus, which, perhaps, could well pose a threat to your life. Without imagination, the mental regulators located in every person would not be able to analyze the threat and foresee the result of its influence. And without memory, you would not remember your past experience, you would not know what the resulting irritation would lead to.
Types of mental cognitive processes
Let us consider in detail the above classification of processes:
1. Feel are the simplest among all mental phenomena. They store in themselves all the ideas about irritating factors that you have ever encountered. In this case, the following types of sensations are distinguished:
- from the outside: taste, tactile, auditory, skin, visual, olfactory sensations, through which we perceive the world around us;
- internal: nausea, hunger, thirst, etc., arising as a result of signals from receptors of certain organs;
- motor sensations appear due to changes in the position of your body.
2. Perception reflects not only what you see, what surrounds you, but also complements all this with their properties, affecting the senses.
3. Attention is the concentrated focus of your consciousness on phenomena or objects of the real world. It is worth noting that it is difficult for every individual to simultaneously perceive information from many sources, but you will definitely hear your name, for example, spoken in the crowd during a stormy party. Scientists explain this by the fact that the main mechanisms of attention are always focused on phrases and words that have special meaning for a person.
4. Memory reflects everything that was previously perceived, accomplished, experienced by you. There is genetic and lifetime:
- hereditary memory includes instincts, all the information that characterizes your physiological structure. It is not particularly influenced by a person's living conditions;
- Lifetime stores what has accumulated since the moment of your birth. In addition, unlike the previous one, it is dependent on external influences.
5. Thinking also refers to higher mental cognitive processes. It helps to discover new knowledge for a person, promotes creative development and problem solving. It is in the process of the latter that it manifests itself most clearly.
6. Speech combines sound signals and symbols that facilitate the presentation of information, its processing, storage in memory and, if necessary, transmission.
Disturbance of cognitive mental processes
The individual may be subject to mental disorders cognitive processes. The reason for this is various diseases. Thus, with epilepsy, memory capacity decreases, problems with thinking appear (it is very difficult for the patient to solve basic problems). As a result of traumatic brain injuries, a decrease in mental performance has been observed. If there is a suspicion of such a mental disorder, you should urgently 
seek advice from a psychiatrist.
