Methodology
Properties of scientific knowledge:
Objectivity
Credibility
Accuracy
Systematicity
Empirical knowledge (empirical material accumulates (scientific facts, generalizations), sensory cognition predominates) and theoretical knowledge (at this level, laws are identified, rational knowledge predominates. Forms of knowledge: problem, hypothesis, theory)
Methods of scientific knowledge:
Observation (sensory reflection of phenomena)
Measurement (determining quantitative values of object properties using instruments)
Induction (...from particular to general...)
Deduction (…From general to specific…)
Analysis (dividing an object into parts)
Synthesis (connection of parts of an object, cognition of it in unity and interconnection of parts)
Abstraction (mental distraction from unimportant properties of an object)
Modeling (learning using a model)
Experiment (active, strictly controlled influence of the researcher on the object)
Hypothesis
Requirements for scientific hypotheses:
Consistency with empirical facts
Verifiability (verification principles (empirical confirmability) and falsification (empirical falsifiability))
Scientific theory ( a system of laws that explains phenomena in a certain area of reality)
Scope of the theory
Principle of correspondence (the new scientific theory contains as a special case the old theory, the validity of which has been established experimentally)
Topic 1-01-02. Natural science and humanities cultures
Natural science as a complex of natural sciences (natural sciences) (physics, chemistry, biology, astronomy, geography, geology, ecology)
Differentiation of Sciences (division of sciences into separate disciplines)
Integration of Sciences ( association of sciences)
Humanitarian sciences (sciences about society and man)
Humanitarian and artistic culture, its main differences from scientific and technical culture:
Subjectivity of knowledge
Lax figurative language
Interest in the individual properties of the objects being studied
Difficulty (or impossibility) of verification and falsification
Mathematics as the language of natural science
Pseudoscience as an imitation of scientific activity (astrology, ufology, parapsychology, bioenergy)
Features pseudoscience:
Fragmentation
Uncritical approach to source data
Immunity to criticism
Lack of general laws
Unverifiability and/or non-falsifiability of pseudoscientific data
Topic 1-01-03. Development of scientific research programs and pictures of the world (history of natural science, development trends)
Scientific (research) program (a series of successive theories united by fundamental principles)
Ancient Greece: the emergence of a program for rational explanation of the world
The principle of causality in its original form (every event has a natural cause) and its later clarification (the cause must precede the effect)
Atomistic research program of Leucippus and Democritus: everything is made of discrete atoms; it all comes down to the movement of atoms in the void
Aristotle's continuum research program: everything is formed from continuous, infinitely divisible matter, leaving no room for emptiness
Complementarity of atomistic and continuum research programs
Scientific (or natural philosophical) picture of the world as a figurative and philosophical generalization of the achievements of the natural sciences
Fundamental questions answered by the scientific (or natural philosophical) picture of the world:
About matter
About the movement
About interaction
About space and time
On causality, regularity and chance
About cosmology (the general structure and origin of the world)
Aristotle's natural philosophical picture of the world (geocentrism)
Scientific pictures of the world: mechanical (17th century), electromagnetic (19th century), non-classical (1st half of the 20th century), modern evolutionary
Thesaurus for the KSE discipline
For specialties
The evolution of the scientific method and the natural science picture of the world
Topic 1-01-01. Scientific method of knowledge
Methodology
Properties of scientific knowledge:
Objectivity
Credibility
Accuracy
Systematicity
Empirical knowledge (empirical material accumulates (scientific facts, generalizations), sensory cognition predominates) and theoretical knowledge (at this level, laws are identified, rational knowledge predominates. Forms of knowledge: problem, hypothesis, theory)
Methods of scientific knowledge:
Observation (sensory reflection of phenomena)
Measurement (determining quantitative values of object properties using instruments)
Induction (...from particular to general...)
Deduction (…From general to specific…)
Analysis (dividing an object into parts)
Synthesis (connection of parts of an object, cognition of it in unity and interconnection of parts)
Abstraction (mental distraction from unimportant properties of an object)
Modeling (learning using a model)
Experiment (active, strictly controlled influence of the researcher on the object)
Hypothesis
Requirements for scientific hypotheses:
Consistency with empirical facts
Verifiability (verification principles (empirical confirmability) and falsification (empirical falsifiability))
Scientific theory ( a system of laws that explains phenomena in a certain area of reality)
Scope of the theory
Principle of correspondence (the new scientific theory contains as a special case the old theory, the validity of which has been established experimentally)
Topic 1-01-02. Natural science and humanities cultures
Natural science as a complex of natural sciences (natural sciences) (physics, chemistry, biology, astronomy, geography, geology, ecology)
Differentiation of Sciences (division of sciences into separate disciplines)
Integration of Sciences ( association of sciences)
Humanitarian sciences (sciences about society and man)
Humanitarian and artistic culture, its main differences from scientific and technical culture:
Subjectivity of knowledge
Lax figurative language
Interest in the individual properties of the objects being studied
Difficulty (or impossibility) of verification and falsification
Mathematics as the language of natural science
Pseudoscience as imitation scientific activity (astrology, ufology, parapsychology, bioenergy)
Distinctive features of pseudoscience:
Fragmentation
Uncritical approach to source data
Immunity to criticism
Lack of general laws
Unverifiability and/or non-falsifiability of pseudoscientific data
Topic 1-01-03. Development of scientific research programs and pictures of the world (history of natural science, development trends)
Scientific (research) program (a series of successive theories united by fundamental principles)
Ancient Greece: the emergence of a program for rational explanation of the world
The principle of causality in its original form (every event has natural cause) and its later clarification (the cause must precede the effect)
Atomistic research program of Leucippus and Democritus: everything is made of discrete atoms; it all comes down to the movement of atoms in the void
Aristotle's continuum research program: everything is formed from continuous, infinitely divisible matter, leaving no room for emptiness
Complementarity of atomistic and continuum research programs
Scientific (or natural philosophical) picture of the world as a figurative and philosophical generalization of the achievements of the natural sciences
Fundamental questions answered by the scientific (or natural philosophical) picture of the world:
About matter
About the movement
About interaction
About space and time
On causality, regularity and chance
About cosmology (the general structure and origin of the world)
Aristotle's natural philosophical picture of the world (geocentrism)
Scientific pictures of the world: mechanical (17th century), electromagnetic (19th century), non-classical (1st half of the 20th century), modern evolutionary
Topic 1-01-04. Development of ideas about matter
Thales: the problem of finding the beginning (Thales: the first principle of all things is water)
Abstraction of matter (matter is objective reality)
Mechanical picture of the world: the only form of matter is a substance consisting of discrete corpuscles
Electromagnetic picture of the world: two forms of matter - matter and a continuous electromagnetic field
Wave as a propagating disturbance of a physical field
Doppler effect: dependence of the measured wavelength on the mutual motion of the observer and the wave source (if the source moves away from the observer, the measured wavelength increases)
Modern scientific picture of the world: three forms of matter - matter, physical field, physical vacuum
Topic 1-01-05. Development of ideas about movement
Heraclitus: the idea of the non-stop variability of things
Aristotle's doctrine of motion as an attribute of matter and the variety of forms of motion
Mechanical picture of the world: the only form of movement is mechanical movement
Electromagnetic picture of the world: movement - not only the movement of charges, but also a change in the field (wave propagation)
The concept of the state of a system as a set of data that allows one to predict its further behavior
Movement as a change of state
Chemical form of movement: chemical process
Biological form of movement: vital processes, evolution of living nature
Modern scientific picture of the world: evolution as a universal form of matter movement
The variety of forms of movement, their qualitative differences and irreducibility to each other
Topic 1–01-06. Development of ideas about interaction
Aristotle's ideas about interaction: one-sided influence of the mover on the movable; the initial form of the concept of short-range action (transfer of influence only through intermediaries, with direct contact)
Mechanical picture of the world:
Emergence of the concept mutual actions (Newton's third law) (F=-F action is equal to reaction)
Discovery of fundamental interaction (law worldwide gravity)
Adoption of the concept of long-range action (instant transmission of interaction through emptiness at any distance)
Electromagnetic picture of the world:
Discovery of the second fundamental force (electromagnetic)
Return to the concept of short-range action (interaction is transmitted only through a material intermediary - a physical field - with finite speed)
Field mechanism for the transfer of interactions (a charge creates a corresponding field that acts on the corresponding charges)
Modern scientific picture of the world:
Four Fundamental Interactions (as intensity increases: gravitational, weak, electromagnetic, strong), (gravitational (the weakest, all particles participate in it, extends as far as desired), electromagnetic (only charged particles participate, propagates as far as desired), strong (formation of atomic nuclei from protons and neutrons, as well as protons and neutrons from quarks, acts at a short distance, only hadrons are involved) and weak (nuclear decays, interconversion elementary particles, acts over a short distance, all particles participate))
Quantum field mechanism for the transfer of interactions (a charge emits virtual particles that are carriers of the corresponding interaction, absorbed by other similar charges)
Particles that carry fundamental interactions (photons (electromagnetic), gravitons (gravitational), gluons (strong), intermediate vector bosons (weak))
Fundamental interactions prevailing between objects:
Microworld (strong, weak and electromagnetic)
Macroworld (electromagnetic)
Megaworld (gravitational)
(between stars and planets - gravitational, between atoms, molecules, between the atomic nucleus and shell - electromagnetic; chemical motion is of an electromagnetic nature)
Series "Higher Education"V.N. SAVCHENKO V.P. SMAGIN
BEGINNINGS OF MODERN NATURAL SCIENCE
THESAURUS
Tutorial
Rostov-on-Don
UDC 50(038) BBK 20YA2 KTK 100 S 13
Reviewers:
V.E. Osukhovsky, Doctor of Physics and Mathematics. Sciences, Professor, Head. Department of Physics, Pacific Naval Institute named after. adm. CO. Makarova;
V.K.Baturin, Doctor of Philosophy, Professor, Full Member of the Russian Academy of Natural Sciences
Savchenko V. N.
From the 13th Beginning of modern natural science: thesaurus / V. N. Savchenko, V. P. Smagin. - Rostov n/d.: Phoenix, 2006. - 336 p. - (Higher education).
ISBN 5-222-09158-9
This second part of our complete textbook “The Beginnings of Modern Natural Science” sets as its main goal to give students of both the humanities, natural sciences and engineering specialties an explanation (interpretation) of the most frequently encountered in modern scientific vocabulary, primarily in natural science, history and philosophy of science, scientific concepts, categories, terms and concepts. The thesaurus, essentially an explanatory dictionary of modern natural science, intended for growing Russian intellectuals, serves as a necessary addition to the theoretical-conceptual (first) part of the manual. The proposed thesaurus includes about 1,500 words.
Intended for students of humanitarian and socio-economic specialties of universities. The manual may be useful to teachers of the academic discipline “Concepts of modern natural science” and a wide range of people from other specialties and professions interested in the problems and state of natural science and philosophy of science of modern times, their terminology.
ISBN 5-222-09158-9
UDC 50(038) BBK 20YA2
© Savchenko V.N., Smagin V.P., 2006
© Design: Phoenix Publishing House, 2006
^ OCR: Ikhtik (Ufa)
ihtik.lib.ru
Preface
Modern scientific terminology has been created over thousands of years, mainly thanks to several languages, which at certain historical periods also became international scientific languages. The first of these languages in antiquity was Greek language, then, in the early Middle Ages - Arab, in the late Middle Ages, Renaissance and early modern times - Latin, in modern times - German and English. Therefore, it is not surprising that most scientific terms are of Greek and Latin origin, fewer - ; Arabic, and this is the first feature of scientific terminology. The second feature of scientific terms is their frequent polysemy due to the use of the same word by different sciences, associated with insufficient development own language private sciences.
The origin of words (etymology) and their interpretation is always a task of extreme complexity, responsibility and uncertainty (it is enough to compare several Explanatory dictionaries) and this itself can and often gives unexpected results. For example, consider the (simplified) interpretation of the word natural science. It is borrowed from the Old Church Slavonic (English) language and formed from the word there is(which is a tracing paper Greek word ousia - essence, being) and words knowledge, which gives a literal interpretation of the word under study - knowledge of being, knowledge of essence. Therefore, natural science
There is ontology(literally in Greek - doctrine of being). The dictionary, for example, of Brockhaus and Efron in the modern version (an encyclopedic dictionary, not an explanatory one) defines natural science How natural history, thereby highlighting just one part of its meaning.
The term also turns out to be ambiguous thesaurus, used here by us and now known to all users of personal computers. This word comes from the Greek. thesaurus - treasure, reserve and has the following meanings: 1) in linguistics - a dictionary of a language with complete semantic information; 2) in computer science - a complete systematized set of data about any field of knowledge; 3) in cultural studies and thesaurology - a set of subjective ideas about the world, people and culture, structured on the basis of “one’s own - someone else’s”. In our case, all three concepts of thesaurus are mixed.
The natural science thesaurus we propose does not in any way pretend to be comprehensive, but the authors hope that the words, terms, and concepts selected in it are lively and most commonly used in the most important, primarily in the natural branches of science, and their interpretation quite accurately reflects their modern semantics .
Aberration(from Latin aberratio - deviation) - a widely used term meaning 1) deviation from the norm; 2) in optical systems- image distortion due to technical imperfections of the glass, resulting in coma, spherical aberration, astigmatism, and distortion; 3) astronomical - arises due to the mutual movement of the observed star and the receiver (usually a telescope), as a result of which a change (shift) in the apparent position of the star on the celestial sphere is observed; 4) chromosomal aberrations are known in biology (the same as chromosomal rearrangements).
Abiogenesis(from A - meaning negation, bio... And... genesis)- formation of biological structures outside body without participation enzymes; one of the modern hypotheses origin life from non-living (inert substance).
Abiotic factors- factors of the inorganic, or nonliving, environment in the group environmental factors of adaptationtions, acting among biological species and their communities, divided into climatic (light, air, water, soil, humidity, wind), soil-ground, topographic, oceanic and fire effects. Absolute (absolute)(from Latin absolutus - unconditional, unlimited) - free from k.-l. relationships and conditions, independent, perfect. The opposite is relative. In philosophy and religion the most important thing is metaphysically absolute, which is perceived as: absolute being, absolute spirit, i.e.; the highest world mind (in Hegel), the absolute personality - God (in Christianity), etc.
Absolute temperature- thermodynamic temperature introduced by the English physicist William Thom-
son (Lord Kelvin), denoted by T, counted from absolute zero temperatures on the Kelvin scale or thermodynamic temperature scale. The absolute temperature values are 273.16 degrees higher than the temperature on the Celsius scale.
Absolute zero temperature - the initial reading on the Kelvin scale, is a negative temperature of 273.16 degrees on the Celsius scale.
Gas absorption (from Latin absorptio - absorb) - volumetric absorption of gases and vapors by a liquid (absorbent) with the formation of a solution. The reverse process of absorption is called desorption. A distinction is made between physical and chemical absorption.
Abstraction (from Latin abstractio - distraction) is a form of cognition based on the mental, conceptual identification of the essential properties and connections of an object and abstraction from other, particular properties and connections. The concept of “abstract” is opposed to the concrete.
Abstract thinking is the same as conceptual thinking, i.e., a person’s ability to form abstract, indirect, non-visual, purely mental ideas about objects in which the basic properties of specific things are generalized.
Avogadro's law - in equal amounts ideal gases at the same pressure and temperature there are the same number of molecules. Opened in 1811.
Avogadro's constant (Avogadro's number) is the number of particles (atoms, molecules, ions) in 1 mole of a substance (a mole is the amount of a substance that contains the same number of particles as there are atoms in exactly 12 grams of the carbon isotope 12), denoted by the symbol N = 6.023 10 23 . One of the most important fundamental physical constants.
Australopithecus(from Latin australis - southern and Greek pithkos - monkey) - fossil higher apes primates, walking on two legs, lived about 4-1 million years ago. Skeletal remains found in southern and eastern Africa (zinjanthropeAnd etc.).
Autowaves- a type of self-sustaining waves in active (non-equilibrium energetically) media, including waves in chemical Belousov-Zhabotinsky reactions, during combustion, etc.
Autocatalysis- acceleration of a reaction due to the accumulation of an intermediate or final product that has a catalytic effect in a given reaction, i.e. due to the resulting V reactions catalyst.
Self-oscillatory reactions, see Oscillatory reactions.
Autonomy(from the Greek autos - self and nomos - law) - own law, for example, the autonomy of organic life in relation to inorganic life, thinking in relation to being, etc.
Autotrophic(auto 4 - Greek trophe - food) - feeding on inorganic substances.
Agnosticism(from the Greek agnostos - inaccessible to knowledge, unknown) - the doctrine of the unknowability of true being, the objective world, its essence and laws. Agnosticism denies metaphysics as science; limits the role of science only to the knowledge of phenomena.
Unit(from Lat. aggrego - I attach) - a mechanical connection into a whole of dissimilar parts and objects.
Aggression(from Latin aggressio - attack) (in animal behavior) - a response action (action) of an animal in relation to another individual of its own or another species, leading to its intimidation, suppression or infliction of physical injury, including death. Manifestations of aggression are often associated with fear.
Adaptation - (from Lat. adaptare - to adapt, late Lat. Adaptatio - adaptation) - adaptation of the functions and structure of the body to the conditions of existence as a result of a complex of morphophysiological, behavioral, population and other characteristics of a biological species. Adaptation is also called the process of developing adaptations. There are two groups of adaptations - accommodation (for example, accommodation of the eye to clearly see objects located at different distances) and evolutionary adaptation (due to natural selection).
Additivity (from Latin additivus - added, added) is a property of some physical and geometric quantities, consisting in the fact that the value of a quantity corresponding to the whole object is equal to the sum of the values of quantities corresponding to its parts for any division of the object into parts. Such properties are the lengths of lines, surface areas, volumes of bodies, mass and weight of a body.
Adenine - purine (nitrogenous) base, contained in the nucleic acids of all living organisms; one of 4 "letters" genetic code, denoted as A.
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)- nucleotide, educated purine base of adenine, a monosaccharide of ribose and three phosphoric acid residues. Acts as a universal energy accumulator in organisms. Under the influence enzymes phosphate groups are split off from ATP, releasing energy, due to which muscle contractions, synthetic and other vital processes occur.
Adiabatic invariants (from the Greek adiabatos - non-transitive and French invariant - unchanging) - physical characteristics of finite (limited non-transient)
which finite region) the motions of the system remain constant with a very slow (adiabatic) change in external conditions (external field) or other parameters of the system (size, mass, charge, etc.).
Adsorption (from Latin ad - on, at and sorbeo - absorb) is a change, usually an increase, in the concentration of a substance near the phase interface (“absorption on the surface”). The reverse process of adsorption is desorption.
Adept (from Lat. adeptus - achieved) - a zealous adherent of a k.-l. teachings, ideas; initiated into the secrets of K.-L. teachings, sects.
Hadrons (from the Greek adros - strong) are the general name for elementary particles subject to strong interaction.
An aquabiont is the same as a hydrobiont, an organism that constantly lives (inhabitant) in an aquatic environment.
Accommodation of the eye is the adaptation of the eye to clearly see objects at different distances (“focusing”).
Accumulation, accumulation (from Latin accumulatio - gathering in a heap, accumulation) - the process of accumulation, collecting matter, energy, and other quantitative characteristics.
Accretion (from Latin accretio - increment, increase) - gravitational capture of matter and its subsequent fall onto a cosmic body (for example, a star).
Axiom (from the Greek axioma - significance, requirement) - 1) (in mathematics) - a proposition accepted without proof, considered as the initial one when constructing one or another mathematical theory. The system of axioms, which is the logical foundation for the justification of a mathematical theory, is not once and for all complete and perfect and, like the axioms themselves, changes and improves. The system of axioms is presented
There are requirements: consistency, independence and completeness. An axiom is also called a postulate; 2) (in logic) - a starting, initial position that cannot be proven, but at the same time does not need proof, since it is completely obvious and therefore can serve as a starting point for other provisions. The logical axioms are: the law of identity, the law of contradiction, the law of the excluded middle (formulated by Aristotle) And the law of sufficient reason (formulated by G. Leibniz). 3) (in a figurative sense) - an indisputable truth that does not require proof.
Axiomatics - a system of axioms together with basic objects and basic relationships between them; the doctrine of definitions and proofs in their relation to the system of axioms.
^ Axiomatic method - construction method scientific theory as a system of axioms (postulates) and rules of inference (axiomatics), allowing through logical deduction receive approvals (theorems) this theory.
Axon (from the Greek axon - axis) - a process of a nerve cell that conducts nerve impulses from the cell body To etc. nerve cells or innervated organs. Axon bundles form nerves.
Actualization (novolat. - implementation), transition from a state of possibility to a state of reality.
Actual (from the French actuel - valid) - 1) (in philosophy) effective, modern, related to the immediate interests of the individual, urgent; 2) existing, manifested in reality; opposite - potential.
Acceptor (from Latin acceptor - receiver, receiver) - 1) (in physics) structural defect in crystalline semiconductor lattice, which determines the op-
Basic bibliography
Babushkin A.N. Modern concepts of natural science: A course of lectures. 4th ed., erased. -
St. Petersburg: Lan Publishing House, M: OOO Omega-L Publishing House, 2004. - 224 p.
Dubnischeva T.Ya. Concepts of modern natural science: Textbook. allowance. 7th ed., rev. And
add. - M.: Publishing Center "Academy", 2006. - 608 p.
Concepts of modern natural science: Textbook for universities / Ed. V.N. Lavrinenko,
V.P. Ratnikova. - 3rd ed., revised. and additional - M.: UNITY-DANA, 2006. - 317 p.
Sviridov V.V. Concepts of modern natural science: Textbook. - 2nd ed. - St. Petersburg:
Peter, 2005. - 349 p.
Gorbachev V.V. Concepts of modern natural science: Textbook for students
universities - M.: LLC “Publishing house “ONICS 21st century”: LLC “Publishing house “Mir and
education", 2003. - 592 p.
Grushevitskaya T.G., Sadokhin A.P. Concepts of modern natural science: Textbook. allowance
for universities. - M.: UNITY-DANA, 2003. - 670 p.
Dubnischeva T.Ya. Concepts of modern natural science. - Basic course in questions and
answers: Study guide. 2nd ed. corr. and additional - Novosibirsk: Siberian University of Publishing House, 2005. -
592s.
Ruzavin G.I. Concepts of modern natural science: Textbook for universities. - M.: UNITY,
2000, 2005.-287 p.
ABIOGENESIS is the theory of the emergence of living organisms from inorganic substances.
ABIOTIC ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS - a set of conditions (chemical, physical,
Space, geological-geographical, climatic, etc.) inorganic environment affecting
Organisms.
ABSTRACTING is a way of forming scientific concepts; mental distraction from everyone
Properties, connections and relationships of the object being studied that seem unimportant to us
For this theory.
AUTOCATALYSIS is a phenomenon in which the products of a chemical reaction act as
Catalysts that accelerate the further course of the reaction.
AUTOTROPHES - organisms that produce food through photosynthesis.
ADAPTATION - adaptation of the functions and structure of organisms to living conditions.
Objects of reality that should not be changed.
HEREDITARY - the property of organisms to repeat similar types in a series of generations
Metabolism and individual development in general.
NATURAL PHILOSOPHY - speculative interpretation of nature, perception of it as a whole
SCIENCE is a part of culture, which is a collection of objective knowledge about existence,
The process of obtaining and applying this knowledge in practice.
SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION - a radical revolution in knowledge about the world associated with a change
Scientific picture of the world.
A RESEARCH PROGRAM is the same as a paradigm; totality
Prerequisites that determine a specific Scientific research and recognized at this stage
Development of science.
NEGENTROPY is a measure of the orderliness of a system that accepts only negative
Meanings.
NON-INERTIAL SYSTEMS - systems moving relative to each other with acceleration
Or slowing down.
NEO-DARWINISM is a set of new evolutionary concepts based on
Recognition natural selection the main factor of evolution.
NOMOGENESIS is a non-Darwinian concept of the development of living nature, according to which
Evolution occurs under the influence of certain internal, predetermined reasons.
NOOSPHERE - according to Vernadsky, a new state of the biosphere, transformed by human
Thought and labor; at the same time, intelligent human activity becomes the determining factor
A factor in the dynamics of society and nature.
NORM - functional optimum of a biological system.
NUCLEIC ACIDS - biopolymers built from a large number of nucleotides;
Play a leading role in protein biosynthesis and the transmission of hereditary traits and properties
Organisms.
NUCLEON is the common name for proton and neutron - the particles from which atomic nuclei are built.
NUTATION - periodic small fluctuations in the position of the poles of the world.
FEEDBACK - system reaction to impact environment.
OZONE is a compound formed by three oxygen atoms in the atmosphere under the influence of
Electrical discharges or ultraviolet rays.
ONTOGENESIS - individual development living organism from the moment of inception to
End of life; coordinated implementation of hereditary characteristics and functions within
One organism.
ORGANOGENS - chemical elements that provide the basis for the life of organisms
(carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur).
NATURE CONSERVATION is a set of measures aimed at rational use,
Reproduction and preservation natural resources Earth and outer space.
PALEOGEOGRAPHY is a science that studies the natural conditions that existed on the surface
Lands in ancient geological eras (distribution of ancient continents and seas, nature
Relief, climate, etc.), and their natural changes in the history of the Earth.
PALEONTOLOGY - the science of fossil animals and plants.
PANSPERMY - a hypothesis about the emergence of life on Earth as a result of the transfer of life embryos
From other planets.
PARADIGM (same as research program) - universally recognized scientific
Advances that, over time, provide the scientific community with a model
Statement of problems and their solutions.
Another organism and feeding on it.
PARSEK is an astronomical unit of measurement of interstellar distances, equal to 3.26 light years
PASSIONARITY - in the concept of L.N. Gumilyov, increased craving for action in people,
Arising from their specific ability to absorb more energy than necessary
For normal life; is the result of a mutation.
PATHOLOGY is a violation of the norm, the functional optimum of a biological system.
PESTICIDES - chemicals for weed control (herbicides), pests
(insecticides), diseases (fungicides) of cultivated plants.
PETROGRAPHY - the science of rocks, their compositions, occurrence conditions, patterns
Distribution and origin.
PLASMA - a partially or fully ionized gas in which the densities are positive
And the negative charges are almost identical.
PLANET - non-self-luminous heavenly body, close in shape to a ball, receiving light and
Heat from the Sun and revolving around it in an elliptical orbit.
PLANETESIMALIA - embryonic nuclei formed by accretion from small particles
Gas and dust cloud. Their combination forms planets.
GEOLOGICAL PLATFORM - one of the main structural forms of the earth’s crust,
Characterized by low intensity of tectonic movements and magmatic processes;
It is composed of horizontally deposited sediments (platform cover), under which there are
Heavily metamorphosed and folded older rocks.
POLYMERS - chemical compounds with high molecular weight; polymer molecule
Consists of a large number of repeating units; polymers are the basis for
Production of plastics, rubber, paints and varnishes, adhesives; Everything is made of polymers
Natural and chemical fibers; The cells of living organisms are built from biopolymers and
Intercellular substance.
POLYCENTRISM - a picture of the world that considers the Universe to be infinite in space and eternal
In time, with an infinite number of stars around which many planets revolved,
Inhabited by intelligent beings.
POLES OF THE WORLD - points of intersection of the celestial sphere with the so-called axis of the world, around
Which causes its apparent daily rotation. The North Pole is now located
Near the North Star.
CONCEPT - reflection of objects and phenomena from their essential properties and relationships,
A form of thinking that generalizes and distinguishes objects according to their common characteristics.
POPULATION - a collection of individuals of the same species inhabiting a certain territory,
Freely interbreeding and partially or completely isolated from others
Individuals of their own species.
SOIL - outer horizons of rocks naturally modified by combined influence
Water, air and various kinds organisms, including their remains.
PRECESSION - movement of the points of the spring and autumn equinoxes from east to west
Due to the slow rotation of the earth's axis in space.
THE PRINCIPLE OF VERIFICATION is one of the principles in the methodology of science, which allows us to distinguish
Science from pseudoscience, which claims that if some concept or proposition is reducible to
To direct experience, it makes sense.
RELATIVITY PRINCIPLE (CLASSICAL) - the principle according to which between
There is no difference between rest and uniform rectilinear motion; they are described
The same laws. No mechanical experiments carried out within the system,
Unable to install, at rest this system or moves uniformly and in a straight line.
PRINCIPLE OF CORRESPONDENCE - theories whose validity has been experimentally proven
Established for a specific group of phenomena; with the construction of a new theory for the same area
Of phenomena, the old theory is not discarded, but retains its significance for the previous field of phenomena
As an extreme, special case of a new theory.
SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE - the assumption that the resulting effect
Represents the sum of the effects caused by each influencing phenomenon in
Separateness.
THE PRINCIPLE OF FALSIFIATION is one of the principles in the methodology of science, formulated
K. Popper. In accordance with it, only
Fundamentally refutable knowledge.
PRODUCERS - autotrophic organisms (mostly plants) that can produce
Food made from simple inorganic substances.
PROKARYOTES - cells lacking a formed nucleus (viruses, bacteria, blue-green
Seaweed).
PROTOBIONT is the pre-Eastern ancestor of living organisms on Earth.
PSEUDO-SCIENCE is pseudoscience, a set of fragmentary knowledge hiding under the guise of science.
PULSARS ( neutron stars) - very small stars (about 20 km in diameter)
With high density, I am-
These are sources of cosmic radio, optical, x-ray, gamma radiation, which
Comes to Earth in the form of periodically repeating impulses.
PUNCTUALISM - modern concept non-Darwinian evolution, according to which
Development proceeds through rare and rapid leaps in small populations within one or
Several generations.
PERFORMANCE - the ability of an individual to perform purposeful activities at
A given level of performance over a specified period of time.
RADICAL - a stable group of atoms in a molecule, passing without change from one
Chemical compound into another.
RADIOACTIVITY - spontaneous transformation of unstable atomic nuclei into the nuclei of others
Elements accompanied by the emission of nuclear radiation.
RACE - a historically established group of people united by a common origin,
Expressed in the community of hereditary secondary external
Physical characteristics (skin color, eyes, hair, skull shape, etc.).
RATIONAL NATURE MANAGEMENT - the ability to manage natural resources
Ecosystems in order to ensure and further improve the existence of human
society, maximum use of all necessary natural resources, prevention
And reducing the possible harmful consequences of human activity.
RATIONALITY is a property of scientific knowledge that requires, when understanding the world, to rely
Only on the human mind and its capabilities.
REACTIVITY - the chemical activity of a chemical element, depending
On the number of electrons in the external electronic level.
REDUCTIONISM is a methodological approach that reduces the highest to the lowest, explaining
Complex through simple.
RESONANCE is the phenomenon of a strong increase in the amplitude of vibrations (electrical,
Mechanical, sound, etc.) under the influence external influences, when the natural frequency
The oscillations of the system coincide with the oscillation frequency of the external influence.
RESONANCES - unstable elementary particles characterized by extremely small
Lifetime - 10 ~ 25 -10" seconds.
RECAPITULATION (biogenetic law) - reproduction of the main stages of development
Ancestral forms (phylogeny) during individual (embryo) development (ontogenesis) in
Currently living organisms.
RECOMBINATION OF GENES - redistribution of genetic material of parents into
Offspring, which determines the variability of living organisms.
RELIC - an organism, object or phenomenon preserved as a relic from ancient eras.
RELATIVISTIC EFFECTS - - changes in the space-time characteristics of bodies,
Noticeable at high speeds, comparable to the speed of light.
REPLICATION - synthesis on each strand of a DNA molecule of its paired strand; underlies
Transfer of hereditary information from cell to cell and from generation to generation.
REFLEX - the body's response to certain influences, carried out with
Involvement of the nervous system.
RECESSIVE CHARACTER - one of the parental characteristics that does not appear in offspring
The first generation is depressed; this sign begins to appear in the second and
Subsequent generations.
RNA - - ribonucleic acid, one of the nucleic acids, a characteristic component
Cytoplasm of animal and plant cells.
RUDIMENT - an underdeveloped organ that has lost its function during the historical
The development of the organism and being on the way to extinction.
SALTATIONISM is one of the areas of anti-Darwinism, founded in the 1860-1870s. A.
Suess and A. Kölliker. Argues that the entire plan for the future development of life arose back in
The moment of its appearance, and all evolutionary events occur as a result of spasmodic
Changes (saltations) of embryogenesis.
SELF-ORGANIZATION is a spasmodic natural process that translates open
A nonequilibrium system that has reached a critical state in its development into a new
A stable state with a higher level of order compared to the initial one.
SAPROPHYTES - heterotrophic organisms that feed on the decomposition of dead tissues or
Dissolved organic matter and converting them into simple mineral compounds.
BREEDING - breeding new and improving existing plant varieties and animal breeds
By applying scientific selection methods.
SYMBIOSIS - a form of joint mutually beneficial existence of two different organisms
SYMMETRY - uniformity, proportionality, harmony of any objects.
SYMMETRY IN PHYSICS - property physical quantities, describing in detail the behavior
Systems remain unchanged under certain transformations of these quantities. lie in
The basis of the laws of conservation of physical quantities.
SINGULARITY - a point volume with an infinitely high density, sometimes called so
The initial superdense state of the Universe.
SYNERGETICS (cooperativity, cooperation) - the science of self-organization of simple systems,
Transforming chaos into order.
SYNTHESIS - a method of scientific knowledge, combining disparate elements of a subject into a single one
The whole and the knowledge of this whole in the unity and mutual connection of its parts.
SYSTEM - an internal or external ordered set of interconnected elements,
A certain integrity that manifests itself as something unified in relation to other objects
Or external conditions.
SYSTEM APPROACH - the idea of the world as a set of multi-level systems,
Connected by relationships of hierarchical subordination.
JUMP is an extremely nonlinear process in which even small changes in control
The parameters of the system cause its transition to a new quality.
CONSCIOUSNESS - the property of highly organized matter to reflect objective properties
objects and phenomena of the surrounding world, plan your actions and evaluate the received
Results; part of the psyche that can be arbitrarily directed to a specific real
Or an ideal object, excited or inhibited by the subject itself. In consciousness they distinguish
Processes of attention, perception and processing of information, memory, thinking, as well as moments
Creativity.
HEISENBERG UNCERTAINTY RELATIONSHIP is a principle of modern physics,
Arguing that the more accurately the impulse is fixed, the greater the uncertainty will be in
The value of the coordinates of an elementary particle, and vice versa.
SPECTROSCOPY is a branch of physics that studies the spectra of electromagnetic
Radiation from atoms, atomic nuclei, molecules, crystals, etc.
SPIN - intrinsic mechanical angular momentum (momentum) of an elementary
Particles, their internal degree of freedom, always inherent in a given type of particle. Defines them
Properties are determined by the quantum nature of these particles. Can be equal to an integer (O, 1, 2) and
Half-integer (1/2, 3/2) number.
STATISTICAL LAWS - physical laws, reflecting objective patterns in
In the form of an unambiguous connection statistical distributions physical quantities.
SCIENTIFIC THINKING STYLE is a method of formulating scientific research accepted in the scientific community.
Problems, argumentation, presentation of scientific results; regulates the entry of new ideas into
Science is shaped by the appropriate type of researcher.
STRANGEness is a quantum number characterizing hadrons.
STRATIGRAPHY is a branch of geology that studies the sequence of formation of rocks
Rocks, their primary spatial relationships and relative ages for the purpose of
Establishments geological structure terrain and sequence of geological events
Stories of the Earth.
STRUCTURE - a relatively stable system of connections between elements that form a single whole;
Includes elements of the system, relationships between them and the system of these relationships.
STRINGS are extended one-dimensional objects with a length 10~ zu cm, which are synonymous
Elementary particles in superstring theory. The elementary particles known to us today are considered
In this theory, the excited states of such strings.
SUCCESSION is a process of natural change in biocenoses in one area of the environment.
SCIENTISM - a worldview based on faith in science as the only saving grace
TAXON - a group of discrete objects related by varying degrees of commonality of properties and
characteristics and, thanks to this, giving grounds for assigning them a certain
CREATIVITY - activity aimed at learning and creating something qualitatively new,
Still unknown in the material and spiritual spheres of culture.
TECTONICS is a branch of geology that studies the structure of the earth's crust and its changes under
The influence of mechanical movements and deformations associated with the development of the Earth as a whole.
TELEOGENESIS - a direction of anti-Darwinism based on the belief in advance
The destined course of evolution.
TELEOLOGISM - the idea that any object or phenomenon of reality
There is an inherent purpose.
CORPORITY is the flow of life, the vital activity of a person as a whole.
TELOMERES - special structures located at the ends of chromosomes; play important role V
DNA replication.
THEORY is the highest form of scientific knowledge, a set of generalized provisions that form
Any science or its section.
THEOCENTRISM - the idea of God as the only true reality; the basis
Medieval worldview.
THERMODYNAMICS is a branch of physics in which the most general properties of systems are studied,
Being in a state of thermal equilibrium, and the processes of transition between such states,
Accompanied by the conversion of heat into other types of energy.
THERMONUCLEAR REACTION reaction of fusion (fusion) of atomic nuclei, effectively
Flowing at ultra-high temperatures and helping to maintain these temperatures
Due to high energy release.
TECHNOLOGY - a set of methods of processing, manufacturing, changing state, properties,
Forms of raw material, material or semi-finished product in the production process.
TECHNOSPHERE - a set of technical devices and systems along with various types
Technical human activity on the planet; appeared as a result of anthropogenic
Transformations of the biosphere.
TYPOLOGY - classification of objects or phenomena based on the principle of commonality of any
Signs.
BIFURCATION POINT - critical value system parameters at which it is possible
Ambiguous transition to a new state.
UV RADIATION is electromagnetic radiation invisible to the eye,
Located in the spectrum between violet and x-rays; distinguished by strong
Chemical and biological action.
UNIFICATION - bringing something to a single system, form, to uniformity.
CONTROL PARAMETERS the most important indicators, on which it depends
Existence of the system.
PHAGOTHOROPHS - heterotrophic organisms that feed on other organisms.
PHASE is a separate stage in the development of any phenomenon or process in nature or society.
FAUNA - - the totality of all species of animals of any area or geological
Period.
PHENOTYPE is the totality of all the characteristics and properties of an organism formed in the process
His individual development.
ENZYMES - biocatalysts - substances of protein nature contained in animals and
Plant organisms, guiding, forming, regulating and repeatedly
Accelerating biochemical processes in them.
FERMIONS - elementary particles with half-integer spin, in the final limit protruding
Like particles of matter; are subject to the Pauli exclusion.
PHYSICAL PICTURE OF THE WORLD - an idea of the world from the point of view of physics; result of development
Physical knowledge; the most general theoretical knowledge in physics; system of concepts, principles and
Hypotheses that serve as the initial basis for building theories.
PHYLOGENESIS - historical development organisms, or the evolution of the organic world,
Various types, classes, orders, families, genera and species.
PHLOGISTON - from Greek. "combustible"; a special flammable substance contained in all flammable
bodies and ensuring the combustion process; misconception that prevailed in chemistry
FLORA - a historically established set of plant species in a particular area or
Geological period.
FLUCTUATION is a random deviation of a system from its equilibrium position.
FORMALIZATION - a method of scientific knowledge, the use of special symbols instead
Real objects.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS - the formation in the cells of green plants, algae and some
Microorganisms of carbohydrates and oxygen from carbon dioxide and water under the influence of light.
PHOTO EFFECT - “knocking out” electrons from a substance when exposed to it
Electromagnetic radiation (photons).
FUNGICIDES - chemical preparations to destroy or prevent the development
Pathogenic fungi - pathogens of agricultural plant diseases.
CHEMICAL BOND - a type of interaction between individual atoms or atomic
Molecular particles, which is due to the sharing of their electrons;
The most important types of bonds are covalent (polar and nonpolar), ionic, metallic,
Hydrogen.
CHEMICAL COMPOUND - - a substance consisting of one or more chemicals
Elements whose atoms are combined into a particle due to the sharing of electrons,
Having a stable structure - a molecule, complex, single crystal or other aggregate.
CHROMATOERAPHY is a method of separating mixtures based on the fact that different substances in
Liquid or gaseous phases have different bond strengths with the surface with which they
Are in contact.
CHROMOSOME - a self-replicating structure that is constantly present in the nuclei of cells
Animals and plants. The number, size and shape of chromosomes - karyotype - are strictly specific to
Every kind. They play an important role in the transmission of hereditary properties of the body.
CEPHALIZATION - development of the brain in the evolutionary process.
CYTOLOEIA - the science of structure, chemical composition, functions, individual and
Historical development of animal and plant cells.
BLACK HOLE - a physical body that creates such strong gravity that the red shift
For light emitted near it is capable of going to infinity, so these objects
They don't emit anything. It is believed that collapsed stars become black holes.
EVOLUTIONISM - a theory that understands development only as gradual quantitative
A change that denies jump transitions.
EVOLUTION is a process of long-term, gradual change leading to the emergence of new
EXOTHERMAL REACTION - a chemical reaction that occurs with the release of heat.
ECOLOGY - the science of the relationships of organisms and the communities they form among themselves and
Environment.
EXPERIMENT - a method of scientific knowledge; targeted and strictly controlled
The researcher’s influence on the object of interest to study its various aspects,
Connections and relationships.
ELECTRICAL INDUCTION - the occurrence of current in a conductor near a moving
Magnet.
CHEMICAL ELEMENT - all atoms that have the same nuclear charge; in free
States are simple substances that cannot be broken down into even simpler substances.
EMERGENCE is a property that is absent in individual elements of the system, but
Appearing in the system as a whole.
EMOTIONS - human or animal reactions to internal or external influences
Irritants that have a pronounced subjective assessment and covering all types
Sensory experiences.
EMPIRISM is a doctrine that recognizes sensory experience as the only source of knowledge.
EMPIRICAL KNOWLEDGE - knowledge obtained empirically, tested in practice.
EMPIRICAL GENERALIZATION - a general rule that is directly obeyed
Observable phenomena.
ENDOTHERMIC REACTION - a chemical reaction that occurs with the absorption of heat.
ENTROPY - - a measure of disorder (chaos) of a system, accepting only positive
Meanings. In thermodynamics, the principle of increasing entropy is known - the desire of any
Systems to a state of thermodynamic equilibrium (states with the lowest
Orderliness in the movement of particles), or chaos.
EPIGENESIS is a concept in embryology that interprets the formation of an organism as its
Gradual development from a structureless, unformed primordial substance.
EPICYCLE - an auxiliary circle in the geocentric system of the world of C. Ptolemy,
Introduced to explain the complex movements of planets. It was assumed that the planet was not moving
Just around the Earth, but along an epicycle, the center of which, in turn, moves along the second
Auxiliary circle - deferent.
ETHNOGENESIS - the origin of a people.
ETOLOGY is the science of animal behavior.
EUKARYOTES - all higher organisms whose cells contain a formed nucleus,
Separated from the cytoplasm by the nuclear membrane.
ETHER - in classical science a form of extremely rarefied and elastic matter, not
Fixed known to man physical devices.
DOPPLER EFFECT - change in oscillation frequency or wavelength due to movement
The source of the waves and the observer in relation to each other.
EFFUSION - slow flow of gas through small holes; relatively calm
The outpouring of lava onto the surface of the Earth from volcanoes or fissures.
IATROCHEMISTRY - - a direction in medicine of the 16th-17th centuries, which set as its task the search for
The philosopher's stone for finding a panacea - a cure for all diseases.
^ Thesaurus 2008 for the KSE discipline
for specialties with the number of hours according to the State Standards
less than 130 (level 1)
1. The evolution of the scientific method and the natural science picture of the world
Thesaurus 2009 for the KSE discipline
for specialties with the number of hours according to the State Standards
less than 130 (level 1)
The evolution of the scientific method and the natural science picture of the world
Topic 1-01-01. Scientific method of knowledge
Methodology
Properties of scientific knowledge:
Objectivity
Credibility
Accuracy
Systematicity
Empirical and theoretical knowledge
Methods of scientific knowledge:
Observation
Measurement
Induction
Deduction
Abstraction
Modeling
Experiment
Hypothesis
Requirements for scientific hypotheses:
Consistency with empirical facts
Verifiability (principles of verification and falsification)
Scientific theory
Scope of the theory
Principle of correspondence
^ Topic 1-01-02. Natural science and humanities cultures
Natural science as a complex of natural sciences (natural sciences)
Differentiation of Sciences
Integration of Sciences
Humanitarian sciences
Humanitarian and artistic culture, its main differences from scientific and technical culture:
Subjectivity of knowledge
Lax figurative language
Identification of individual properties of the objects being studied
Difficulty (or impossibility) of verification and falsification
Mathematics as the language of natural science
Pseudoscience as an imitation of scientific activity
Distinctive features of pseudoscience:
Fragmentation (non-systematic)
Uncritical approach to source data
Immunity to criticism
Lack of general laws
Unverifiability and/or non-falsifiability of pseudoscientific data
^
Topic 1-01-03. Development of scientific research programs and pictures of the world (history of natural science, development trends)
Scientific (research) program
Scientific picture of the world
Ancient Greece: the emergence of a program for rational explanation of the world
The principle of causality in its original form (every event has a natural cause) and its later clarification (the cause must precede the effect)
Atomistic research program of Leucippus and Democritus: everything is made of discrete atoms; it all comes down to the movement of atoms in the void
Aristotle's continuum research program: everything is formed from continuous, infinitely divisible matter, leaving no room for emptiness
Complementarity of atomistic and continuum research programs
Scientific (or natural philosophical) picture of the world as a figurative and philosophical generalization of the achievements of the natural sciences
Fundamental questions answered by the scientific (or natural philosophical) picture of the world:
About matter
About the movement
About interaction
About space and time
On causality, regularity and chance
About cosmology (the general structure and origin of the world)
Aristotle's natural philosophical picture of the world
Scientific pictures of the world: mechanical, electromagnetic, non-classical (1st half of the 20th century), modern evolutionary
^ Topic 1-01-04. Development of ideas about matter
Thales: the problem of finding the beginning
Abstraction of matter
Mechanical picture of the world: the only form of matter is a substance consisting of discrete corpuscles
Electromagnetic picture of the world: two forms of matter - matter and a continuous electromagnetic field
Wave as a propagating disturbance of a physical field
Doppler effect: dependence of the measured wavelength on the mutual motion of the observer and the wave source
Forms of matter - matter, physical field, physical vacuum
^ Topic 1-01-05. Development of ideas about movement
Heraclitus: the idea of the non-stop variability of things
Aristotle's doctrine of motion as an attribute of matter and the variety of forms of motion
Mechanical picture of the world: the only form of movement is mechanical movement
Electromagnetic picture of the world: movement - not only the movement of charges, but also a change in the field (wave propagation)
The concept of the state of a system as a set of data that allows one to predict its further behavior
Movement as a change of state
Chemical form of movement: chemical process
Biological form of movement: vital processes, evolution of living nature
Modern scientific picture of the world: evolution as a universal form of matter movement
The variety of forms of movement, their qualitative differences and irreducibility to each other
^ Topic 1–01-06. Development of ideas about interaction
Aristotle's ideas about interaction: one-sided influence of the mover on the movable; the initial form of the concept of short-range action (transfer of influence only through intermediaries, with direct contact)
Mechanical picture of the world:
Emergence of the concept mutual actions (Newton's third law)
Discovery of fundamental interaction (law worldwide gravity)
Adoption of the concept of long-range action (instant transmission of interaction through emptiness at any distance)
Electromagnetic picture of the world:
Discovery of the second fundamental force (electromagnetic)
Return to the concept of short-range action (interaction is transmitted only through a material intermediary - a physical field - with finite speed)
Field mechanism for the transfer of interactions (a charge creates a corresponding field that acts on the corresponding charges)
Modern scientific picture of the world:
Four fundamental forces (gravitational, electromagnetic, strong and weak)
Quantum field mechanism for the transfer of interactions (a charge emits virtual particles that are carriers of the corresponding interaction, absorbed by other similar charges)
Particles that carry fundamental interactions (photons, gravitons, gluons, intermediate vector bosons)
Fundamental interactions prevailing between objects:
Microworld (strong, weak and electromagnetic)
Macroworld (electromagnetic)
Megaworld (gravitational)
^ 2. Space, time, symmetry
Topic 1-02-01. Symmetry principles, conservation laws
The concept of symmetry in natural science: invariance under certain transformations
Broken (incomplete symmetries)
Evolution as a chain of symmetry violations
The simplest symmetries:
Homogeneity (same properties at all points)
Isotropy (same properties in all directions)
Symmetries of space and time:
Homogeneity of space
Uniformity of time
Isotropy of space
Time anisotropy
Noether's theorem as a general statement about the relationship between symmetries and conservation laws
The law of conservation of energy as a consequence of time homogeneity
The law of conservation of momentum (amount of translational motion) as a consequence of the homogeneity of space
The law of conservation of angular momentum (amount of rotational motion) as a consequence of the isotropy of space
^ Topic 1-02-02. Evolution of ideas about space and time
Understanding of space and time as invariant independent entities (emptiness among the ancient Greek atomists; Newton’s absolute space and time)
Understanding space and time as a system of relations between material bodies (space as a category of place, time as a measure of movement in Aristotle; changes in spatial and temporal s x intervals when changing the reference system in Einstein)
The classical law of addition of velocities as a consequence of Newton’s ideas about Absolute space and Absolute time
World Ether Concept
Violation of the classical law of addition of velocities in the Michelson-Morley experiment
Modern scientific picture of the world:
- rejection of the idea of Absolute space and time, world ether and other selected reference systems
- recognition of the close relationship between space, time, matter
and her movement
^
Topic 1-02-03. Special theory of relativity
Galileo's principle of relativity
The principle of relativity (Einstein's first postulate): the laws of nature are invariant with respect to changes in the frame of reference
Invariance of the speed of light (Einstein's second postulate)
Einstein's postulates as a manifestation of the symmetries of space and time
Main relativistic effects (consequences from Einstein’s postulates):
The relativity of simultaneity
Relativity of distances (relativistic length contraction)
Relativity of time intervals (relativistic time dilation)
Invariance of the space-time interval between events
Invariance of cause-and-effect relationships
Unity of space-time
Equivalence of mass and energy
Correspondence between SRT and classical mechanics: their predictions coincide at low speeds of movement (much less than the speed of light)
^ Topic 1-02-04. General theory of relativity
General relativity (GR): extension of the principle of relativity to non-inertial frames of reference
Equivalence principle: accelerated motion is indistinguishable by any measurements from rest in a gravitational field
The relationship between matter and space-time: material bodies change the geometry of space-time, which determines the nature of the movement of material bodies
Correspondence between general relativity and classical mechanics: their predictions coincide in weak gravitational fields
Empirical evidence of general relativity:
Deflection of light rays near the Sun
Time dilation in a gravitational field
Shift of perihelia of planetary orbits
^ 3. Structural levels and systemic organization of matter
Topic 1-03-01. Micro-, macro-, mega-worlds
The Universe at different scales: micro-, macro- and megaworld
Division criterion: commensurability with man (macroworld) and incommensurability with him (micro- and megaworld)
Basic structures of the microworld: elementary particles, atomic nuclei, atoms, molecules
Basic structures of the megaworld: planets, stars, galaxies
Units for measuring distances in the megaworld: astronomical unit (in the Solar System), light year, parsec (interstellar and intergalactic distances)
A star as a celestial body in which thermonuclear fusion reactions have naturally occurred, are occurring, or will necessarily occur
Attributes of the planet:
Not a star
Orbits a star (such as the Sun)
Massive enough to become spherical under the influence of its own gravity
Massive enough to clear the space near its orbit from other celestial bodies with its gravity
Galaxies are systems of billions of stars connected by mutual gravity and common origin.
Our Galaxy, its main characteristics:
Giant (more than 100 billion stars)
Spiral
Diameter about 100 thousand light years
Spatial scales of the Universe: the distance to the most distant observable objects is more than 10 billion light years
Universe, Metagalaxy, the difference between these concepts
^ Topic 1-03-02. System levels of matter organization
(this topic only for specialties whose state standards do not include a biological level of organization of matter)
Integrity of nature
Systematic nature
Additive properties of systems (additivity)
Integrative properties of systems (integrativity)
Collections that are not systems, for example,
Constellations (parts of the starry sky containing groups of stars with a characteristic pattern), etc.
Hierarchy of natural structures as a reflection of the systematic nature: structures of a given level are included as subsystems in a structure of a higher level, which has integrative properties
Hierarchical series of natural systems:
Physical (fundamental particles - composite elementary particles - atomic nuclei - atoms - molecules - macroscopic bodies)
Chemical (atom - molecule - macromolecule - substance)
Astronomical (stars with their planetary systems - galaxies - clusters of galaxies - superclusters of galaxies)
^ Topic 1-03-03. Microworld structures
Elementary particles
Fundamental particles - according to modern concepts, do not have
internal structure and finite sizes (e.g. quarks, leptons)
Particles and antiparticles
Classification of elementary particles:
By participation in interactions: leptons, hadrons
By lifetime: stable (proton, electron, neutrino), unstable (free neutron) and resonances (unstable short-lived)
Interconversions of elementary particles (decays, creation of new particles during collisions, annihilation)
The possibility of any reactions of elementary particles that do not violate the laws of conservation (energy, charge, etc.)
Matter as a set of corpuscular structures (quarks - nucleons - atomic nuclei - atoms with their electronic shells)
Dimensions and mass of a nucleus compared to an atom
^ Topic 1-03-04. Chemical systems
The impossibility of a classical description of the behavior of electrons in an atom
Discreteness of electronic states in an atom
Organization of electronic states of an atom into electron shells
Electron transitions between electronic states as basic atomic processes (excitation and ionization)
Chemical element
Molecule
Substances: simple and complex (compounds)
The concept of the qualitative and quantitative composition of a substance
Catalysts
Biocatalysts (enzymes)
Polymers
Monomers
^ Topic 1-03-05. Features of the biological level of organization of matter
Systematic living
Hierarchical organization of living things: a cell is a unit of living things
Hierarchical organization of natural biological systems:
Biopolymers – organelles – cells – tissues – organs – organisms – populations – species
Hierarchical organization of natural ecological systems:
Individual – population – biocenosis – biogeocenosis – ecosystems of a higher rank (savanna, taiga, ocean) – biosphere)
Chemical composition of living things: organogenic elements, microelements, macroelements, their main role in living things
Chemical composition of living things: the carbon atom is the main element of living things, its unique features:
The ability of atoms to bond with each other to form a variety of structures, which are the supporting basis of organic molecules
The ability to bond with other atoms of close radii (oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur) with the formation of less strong bonds (the appearance of functional groups), which determine the chemical activity of organic compounds
Chemical composition of living things: water, its role for living nature:
High polarity of water and, as a result, chemical activity and high dissolving ability
The high heat capacity of water, high heats of evaporation and melting are the basis for maintaining the temperature homeostasis of living organisms and regulating the heat of the planet
Anomalous density in the solid state is the reason for the existence of life in freezing bodies of water
High surface tension – life on the surface of the hydrosphere, movement of solutions through plant vessels
Chemical composition of living things: features of organic biopolymers as high-molecular compounds - high molecular weight, ability to form spatial and supramolecular structures, diversity of structure and properties
Symmetry and asymmetry of living things
Chirality of living molecules
Openness of living systems
Metabolism and energy
Self-reproduction
Homeostasis as the relative dynamic constancy of the composition and properties of the internal environment of a living system
The catalytic nature of the chemistry of living things
Specific properties of enzymatic catalysis: extremely high selectivity and speed, the main reasons for which are the complementarity of the enzyme and the reagent, the high-molecular nature of the enzyme
^ 4. Order and disorder in nature
Topic 1-04-01. Dynamic and statistical patterns in nature
Determinism (hard) as the idea of complete predetermination of all future events
Criticism of the concept of determinism by Epicurus, his doctrine of irreducible randomness in the movement of atoms
Mechanical determinism as:
Statement about the only possible trajectory of motion of a material point for a given initial state;
Laplace's concept of complete deducibility of the entire future (and past) of the Universe from its current state using the laws of mechanics
Deterministic description of the world: dynamic theory, which unambiguously connects the values of physical quantities characterizing the state of the system
Examples of dynamic theories:
Mechanics,
Electrodynamics,
Thermodynamics,
Theory of relativity,
Description of systems with chaos and disorder: statistical theory, which clearly connects probabilities certain values of physical quantities
Basic concepts of statistical theories:
Randomness (unpredictability)
Probability (numerical measure of randomness)
Average value
Fluctuation (random deviation of the system from the average (most probable) state)
Examples of statistical theories:
Molecular kinetic theory (historically the first statistical theory),
Quantum mechanics, other quantum theories
Darwin's theory of evolution,
Correspondence between dynamic and statistical theories: their predictions coincide when fluctuations can be neglected; in other cases, statistical theories provide a deeper, more detailed and accurate description of reality
^ Topic 1-04-02. Quantum mechanics concepts
Wave-particle duality as a universal property of matter
Thought experiment "Heisenberg microscope"
Position-momentum (velocity) uncertainty relation
The principle of complementarity is the statement that:
Non-disturbing measurements are impossible (measurement of one quantity makes it impossible or inaccurate to measure another, additional quantity)
A complete understanding of the nature of a microobject requires taking into account both its corpuscular and wave properties, although they cannot manifest themselves in the same experiment
- (in a broad sense) for a complete understanding of any subject or process, incompatible but complementary points of view on it are necessary
The statistical nature of the quantum description of nature
^ Topic 1-04-03. The principle of increasing entropy
Forms of energy: thermal, chemical, mechanical, electrical
The first law of thermodynamics is the law of conservation of energy during its transformations
The first law of thermodynamics as a statement about the impossibility of a perpetual motion machine of the first kind
Isolated and open systems
The second law of thermodynamics as the principle of increasing entropy in isolated systems
Change in the entropy of bodies during heat exchange between them
The second law of thermodynamics as the principle of direction of heat transfer (from hot to cold)
The second law of thermodynamics as a statement about the impossibility of a perpetual motion machine of the second kind
Entropy as a measure of molecular disorder
Entropy as a measure of information about a system
The second law of thermodynamics as the principle of increasing disorder and destruction of structures
The pattern of evolution against the background of a general increase in entropy
Entropy of an open system: entropy production in the system, entropy flows in and out
Thermodynamics of life: extracting order from the environment
^
Topic 1-04-04. Patterns of self-organization. Principles of universal
evolutionism
Synergetics - theory of self-organization
Interdisciplinary nature of synergetics
Self-organization in natural and social systems as the spontaneous emergence of ordered non-equilibrium structures due to the objective laws of nature and society
Examples of self-organization in the simplest systems: Benard cells, Belousov-Zhabotinsky reaction, spiral waves
Necessary conditions for self-organization: nonequilibrium and nonlinearity of the system
A sign of disequilibrium of a system: flow of matter, energy, charge, etc.
Dissipation (scattering) of energy in a nonequilibrium system
Dissipative structure - a nonequilibrium ordered structure resulting from self-organization
Threshold nature (suddenness) of self-organization phenomena
Bifurcation point as a moment of crisis, loss of stability
Synchronization of system parts in the process of self-organization
Reducing the entropy of the system during self-organization
Increasing the entropy of the environment during self-organization
Universal evolutionism as a scientific program of our time, its principles:
Everything exists in development;
Development as an alternation of slow quantitative and fast qualitative changes (bifurcations);
Laws of nature as principles for selecting admissible states from all conceivable states;
The fundamental and irreducible role of randomness and uncertainty;
Unpredictability of the path out of the bifurcation point (the past influences the future, but does not determine it);
Stability and reliability of natural systems as a result of their constant renewal
^ 5. Panorama of modern natural science
