A volcanologist is a specialist in the study of volcanoes, their formation, development, structure, and patterns of eruptions.
Wage
20,000–30,000 rub. (yo-o-o.ru)
Place of work
Most volcanologists work in Kamchatka, at the Institute of Volcanology and Seismology, Far Eastern Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences.
Responsibilities
The task of a modern volcanologist is to study volcanoes in order to predict their eruptions. This is necessary not only for the timely evacuation of the population, but also for the use of volcanic heat in the future.
Seismic stations monitor volcanoes around the clock, recording the slightest changes as harbingers of an upcoming eruption. The consequences of the eruptions are also being carefully studied. The data can be used to describe the formation of a planet over billions of years, and traces of lava can unlock the secrets of mineral deposits.
Directly during a volcanic eruption, volcanologists monitor the direction of the heat plume. The data obtained is of great importance for weather stations and airlines.
Important qualities
In the profession of a volcanologist, physical endurance, an analytical mind, logical thinking, observation, a penchant for natural sciences, good hearing and vision are important.
Reviews about the profession
“There is still romance in the work of a volcanologist. We are almost always “in the fields”. In Klyuchi we have no restaurants, no theaters, nothing... so we have to work constantly. In general, there are two periods in the work of a volcanologist: office and field. It is in the office that the scientist processes field information for the past season, selects lava samples, and plans work for the next field season. And in the summer he goes to the volcano, takes samples, takes measurements, calculates the volume of rocks erupted, etc.”
Yuri Demyanchuk,
head of the Kamchatka volcano station.
Stereotypes, humor
A rare profession, but very much in demand, because there are more than 1,000 active volcanoes registered on the planet. At the same time, the profession is closely related to risk and does not allow candidates who are weak in spirit.
Education
To become a volcanologist, you need to obtain a specialized higher education, for example, at the St. Petersburg State University at the Department of Petrology and Volcanology.
In Moscow, you can study at the Moscow State Mining University (MSGU).
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Volcanoes and volcanism
Introduction
1. Volcanoes
1.1 General information
1.2 Geography of volcanoes
2. Volcanism
2.1 Areal volcanoes
2.2 Fissure volcanoes
2.3 Central type
2.4 Structure of the volcano
3. Types of eruptions
3.1 Strombolian type
Conclusion
Introduction
Volcanoes and volcanism. Volcanoes are cone-shaped or dome-shaped elevations above channels, explosion tubes and cracks in the earth’s crust, through which gaseous products, lava, ash, and rock fragments erupt from the depths. Manifestations of volcanism are one of the most characteristic and important geological processes having great value in the history of the development and formation of the earth's crust. Not a single area on Earth - be it a continent or an oceanic trench, a folded area or a platform - was formed without the participation of volcanism. The high practical significance of these phenomena determined the choice of the topic of the course work.
The main goal of the work is to study volcanoes and volcanism. In accordance with the stated goal, the following tasks are considered in the work. The first chapter discusses the history of the appearance of volcanoes, their prevalence on the earth’s surface, as well as we'll talk and about the products of volcanic eruptions, which are solid in the form of volcanic bombs and ash and liquid in the form of lava. The second chapter deals with the manifestation of volcanism and the structure of a volcano. So we learn that there are three types of volcanoes: 1) areal 2) fissure 3) central and have a very complex structure.
The third chapter talks about the types of volcanoes and what types the volcanoes of Russia belong to.
1. Volcanoes
1.1 General information
In the Tyrrhenian Sea in the group of Aeolian Islands there is a small island of Vulcano. The ancient Romans considered this island the entrance to hell, as well as the domain of the god of fire and blacksmithing, Vulcan. After the name of this island, the fire-breathing mountains were later called volcanoes.
A volcanic eruption can last for several days or even months. After a strong eruption, the volcano returns to a state of rest for several years and even decades. Such volcanoes are called active.
There are volcanoes that erupted in times long past. Some of them have retained the shape of a beautiful cone. People have no information about their activities. They are called extinct. In ancient volcanic areas, deeply destroyed and eroded volcanoes are found. In our country such regions are Crimea, Transbaikalia and other places.
If you climb to the top of an active volcano during its calm state, then you can see a crater (in Greek - a large bowl) - a deep depression with steep walls, similar to a giant bowl. The bottom of the crater is covered with fragments of large and small stones, and jets and steam gases rise from cracks in the bottom and walls of the crater. Sometimes they calmly emerge from under stones and crevices, and sometimes they break out violently with whistling and hissing. The crater is filled with choking gases; rising up they form a cloud at the top of the volcano. The volcano can quietly smoke for months and years until an eruption occurs. This event is often preceded by an earthquake; An underground rumble is heard, the release of vapors and gases intensifies, clouds thicken over the top of the volcano.
Then, under the pressure of gases escaping from the bowels of the earth, the bottom of the crater explodes. Thick black clouds of gases and water vapor mixed with ash are thrown out over thousands of meters, plunging the surrounding area into darkness. Simultaneously with the explosion, pieces of hot stones fly from the crater, forming giant sheaves of sparks. Ash falls from black, thick clouds onto the ground, and sometimes torrential rains fall, forming streams of mud that roll down the slopes and flood the surrounding area. The flash of lightning continuously cuts through the darkness. The volcano rumbles and trembles, and hot lava rises through its mouth. It seethes, overflows over the edge of the crater and rushes in a fiery stream along the slopes of the volcano, destroying everything in its path.
During some volcanic eruptions, lava does not flow.
Volcanic eruptions also occur at the bottom of seas and oceans. Sailors learn about this when they suddenly see a column of steam above the water or “stone foam” floating on the surface - pumice. Sometimes ships encounter unexpected shoals formed by new volcanoes at the bottom of the sea. Over time, these shoals - igneous masses - are eroded by sea waves and disappear without a trace.
Some underwater volcanoes form cones that protrude above the surface of the water in the form of islands.
In ancient times, people did not know how to explain the causes of volcanic eruptions. Therefore, this formidable natural phenomenon plunged people into horror.
1.2 Geography of volcanoes
Currently, over 4 thousand have been identified around the globe. volcanoes.
Active volcanoes include those that have erupted and exhibited solfataric activity (the release of hot gases and water) over the last 3,500 years of the historical period. In 1980 there were 947 of them.
Potentially active volcanoes include Holocene volcanoes that erupted 3500-13500 years ago. There are approximately 1343 of them.
Conditionally extinct volcanoes are those that did not show activity in the Holocene, but have retained their external forms (younger than 100 thousand years old).
Extinct - volcanoes significantly reworked by erosion, dilapidated, inactive for the last 100 thousand years. years. Modern volcanoes are known in all major geological structural elements and geological regions of the Earth. However, they are unevenly distributed. The vast majority of volcanoes are located in the equatorial, tropical and temperate regions. In the polar regions, beyond the Northern and Southern Polar Circles, extremely rare areas of relatively weak volcanic activity, usually limited to the release of gases.
There is a direct relationship between their number and the tectonic activity of the area: the largest number of active volcanoes per unit area are on island arcs (Kamchatka, Kuril Islands, Indonesia) and other mountain structures (South and North America). The most concentrated here are also active volcanoes world, characterized by the highest frequency of eruptions. The lowest density of volcanoes is characteristic of oceans and continental platforms; here they are associated with rift zones - narrow and extended areas of splits and subsidence of the earth's crust (East African Rift System), the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.
It has been established that volcanoes are confined to tectonically active belts, where most earthquakes occur.
The areas where volcanoes develop are characterized by relatively large fragmentation of the lithosphere, an abnormally high heat flow (3-4 times higher than background values), increased magnetic anomalies, and an increase in the thermal conductivity of rocks with depth. To the areas of juvenile springs of thermal waters of mud geysers.
Volcanoes located on land are well studied; For them, the dates of past eruptions are precisely determined, and the nature of the spilled products is known. However, most active volcanic activity appears to occur in the seas and oceans that cover more than two-thirds of the planet's surface. The study of these volcanoes and the products of their eruptions is difficult, although during a powerful eruption there may be so many of these products that the volcanic cone formed by them emerges from the water, forming a new island. For example, in the Atlantic Ocean, south of Iceland, on November 14, 1963, fishermen noticed clouds of smoke rising above the surface of the ocean, as well as stones flying out from under the water. After 10 days, an island about 900 m long, up to 650 m wide and up to 100 m high, called Surtsey, had already formed at the site of the eruption. The eruption lasted more than a year and a half and ended only in the spring of 1965, forming a new volcanic island with an area of 2.4 km2 and a height of 169 m above sea level.
Geological studies of the islands show that many of them are of volcanic origin. With the frequent repetition of eruptions, their long duration and the abundance of released products, very impressive structures can be created. Thus, the chain of Hawaiian islands of volcanic origin is a system of cones 9.0-9.5 km high (relative to the bottom Pacific Ocean), i.e. exceeding the height of Everest!
There is a known case when a volcano grew not from under water, as was discussed in the previous case, but from underground, right in front of eyewitnesses. This happened in Mexico on February 20, 1943; after many days of weak tremors, a crack appeared in the plowed field and the release of gases and steam began from it, the eruption of ash and volcanic bombs - clots of lava of bizarre shape, ejected by gases and cooled in the air. Subsequent outpourings of lava led to the active growth of the volcanic cone, the height of which in 1946 was . has already reached 500m (Parikutin volcano).
1.3 Products of volcanic eruptions
When a volcano erupts, products of volcanic activity are released, which can be liquid, gaseous and solid.
Gaseous - fumaroles and sofioni, play important role in volcanic activity. During the crystallization of magma at depth, the released gases raise the pressure to critical values and cause explosions, throwing clots of hot liquid lava to the surface. Also, during volcanic eruptions, powerful gas jets are released, creating huge mushroom clouds in the atmosphere. Such a gas cloud consisting of droplets of molten (over 7000C) ash and gases, formed from cracks of the Mont Pelee volcano, in 1902, destroyed the city of Saint-Pierre and 28,000 of its inhabitants.
The composition of gas emissions largely depends on temperature. The following types of fumaroles are distinguished:
a) Dry - temperature about 5000C, contains almost no water vapor; saturated with chloride compounds.
b) Acidic, or chloride-hydrogen-sulfur - temperature is approximately 300-4000C.
c) Alkaline or ammonia - temperature no more than 1800C.
d) Sulphurous, or solfatars - temperature about 1000C, mainly consists of water vapor and hydrogen sulfide.
e) Carbon dioxide, or mophers - temperature less than 1000C, mainly carbon dioxide.
Liquid - characterized by temperatures in the range of 600-12000C. It is represented by lava.
The viscosity of lava is determined by its composition and depends mainly on the content of silica or silicon dioxide. When its value is high (more than 65%), lavas are called acidic; they are relatively light, viscous, inactive, contain a large amount of gases, and cool slowly. A lower silica content (60-52%) is typical for medium lavas; They, like sour ones, are more viscous, but they are usually heated more strongly (up to 1000-12000C) compared to acidic ones (800-9000C). Basic lavas contain less than 52% silica and are therefore more liquid, mobile, and free-flowing. When they harden, a crust forms on the surface, under which further liquid movement occurs.
Solid products include volcanic bombs, lapilli, volcanic sand and ash. At the moment of the eruption, they fly out of the crater at a speed of 500-600 m/s.
Volcanic bombs are large pieces of hardened lava with a diameter ranging from several centimeters to 1 m or more, and in mass reaching several tons (during the eruption of Vesuvius in 79, the “tears of Vesuvius” volcanic bombs reached tens of tons). They are formed during an explosive eruption, which occurs when the gases contained in it are quickly released from the magma. Volcanic bombs come in two categories: 1st, arising from lava that is more viscous and less saturated with gases; they save correct form even when hitting the ground due to the hardening crust formed during their cooling. 2nd, they are formed from more liquid lava; during flight they acquire the most bizarre shapes, which become even more complex upon impact. Lapilli are relatively small fragments of slag, 1.5-3 cm in size, having various shapes. Volcanic sand - consists of relatively small particles of lava (i 0.5 cm). Even smaller fragments, 1 mm in size or less, form volcanic ash, which, settling on the slopes of the volcano or at some distance from it, forms volcanic tuff.
2. Volcanism
According to modern concepts, volcanism is an external, so-called effusive form of magmatism - a process associated with the movement of magma from the bowels of the Earth to its
surfaces. At a depth of 50 to 350 km, pockets of molten matter - magma - form in the thickness of our planet. Along areas of crushing and fractures of the earth's crust, magma rises and pours out onto the surface in the form of lava (it differs from magma in that it contains almost no volatile components, which, when pressure drops, are separated from the magma and go into the atmosphere.
With these outpourings of magma on the surface, volcanoes are formed
There are three types of volcanoes:
2.1 Areal volcanoes
Currently, such volcanoes do not occur, or one might say do not exist. Since these volcanoes are confined to the release of a large amount of lava onto the surface of a large area; that is, from here we see that they existed in the early stages of the development of the earth, when the earth’s crust was quite thin and in some areas it could be completely molten.
2.2 Fissure volcanoes
They manifest themselves in the outpouring of lava onto the earth's surface along large cracks or splits. At certain periods of time, mainly at the prehistoric stage, this type of volcanism reached quite a wide scale, as a result of which great amount volcanic material - lava. Powerful fields are known in India on the Deccan Plateau, where they covered an area of 5,105 km2 with an average thickness of 1 to 3 km. Also known in the northwestern United States and Siberia. At that time, basaltic rocks from fissure eruptions were depleted in silica (about 50%) and enriched in ferrous iron (8-12%). The lavas are mobile, liquid, and therefore could be traced tens of kilometers from the place of their outpouring. The thickness of individual streams was 5-15m. In the USA, as well as in India, many kilometers of strata accumulated, this happened gradually, layer by layer, over many years. Such flat lava formations with a characteristic stepped relief form are called plateau basalts or traps.
Currently, fissure volcanism is widespread in Iceland (Laki volcano), Kamchatka (Tolbachinsky volcano), and on one of the islands of New Zealand. The largest lava eruption on the island of Iceland along the giant Laki fissure, 30 km long, occurred in 1783, when lava reached the surface for two months. During this time, 12 km 3 of basaltic lava poured out, which flooded almost 915 km 2 of the adjacent lowland with a layer 170 m thick. A similar eruption was observed in 1886. on one of the islands of New Zealand. For two hours, 12 small craters with a diameter of several hundred meters were active over a 30 km segment. The eruption was accompanied by explosions and the release of ash, which covered an area of 10 thousand km2, near the fissure the thickness of the cover reached 75 m. The explosive effect was enhanced by the powerful release of vapors from the lake basins adjacent to the crack. Such explosions, caused by the presence of water, are called phreatic. After the eruption, a graben-shaped depression 5 km long and 1.5-3 km wide formed in place of the lakes.
2.3 Central type
This is the most common type of volcanic magmatism. It is accompanied by the formation of cone-shaped volcanic mountains; the height is controlled by hydrostatic forces. The fact is that the height h to which liquid lava with density pl is capable of rising from the primary magma chamber is determined by the pressure on it of the solid lithosphere with thickness H and density ps. This relationship can be expressed by the following equation:
where g is the acceleration due to gravity.
(h-H)/H=(ps-pl)/ps Expression
2.4 Structure of the volcano
The roots of the volcano, i.e. its primary magma chamber, are located at a depth of 60-100 km in the asthenospheric layer. In the earth's crust at a depth of 20-30 km there is a secondary magma chamber, which directly feeds the volcano through the crater. The volcanic cone is composed of products of its eruption. At the top there is a crater - a bowl-shaped depression that sometimes fills with water. The diameters of the craters can be different, for example, at Klyuchevskaya Sopka - 675m, and at the famous volcano Vesuvius, which destroyed Pompeii - 568m. After the eruption, the crater is destroyed and a depression with vertical walls is formed - a caldera. The diameter of some calderas reaches many kilometers, for example, the caldera of the Aniakchan volcano in Alaska is 10 km.
3. Types of eruptions
Depending on the quantities, the ratio of erupted volcanic products (gas, liquid or solid) and the viscosity of the lavas, four main types of eruptions are distinguished: Hawaiian (effusive), Strombolian (mixed), dome (extrusive) and Vulcan.
Hawaiian type. Hawaiian - volcanic mountains have gentle slopes; their cones are composed of layers of cooled lava. In the craters of active Hawaiian volcanoes there is liquid lava of basic composition with a very small content of gases. It boils vigorously in the crater - a small lake at the top of the volcano, presenting a magnificent sight, especially at night. The dull reddish-brown surface of the lava lake is periodically breached
Vulcan structure
1 - volcanic bomb; 2 - canonical volcano;
3 - a layer of ash and lava; 4 - dike; 5 - volcano crater; 6 - strength; 7 - magma chamber; 8 - shield volcano.
dazzling jets of lava flying upward. During an eruption, the level of the lava lake begins to rise calmly, almost without shocks or explosions, and reaches the edges of the crater, then the lava overflows and, having a very liquid consistency, spreads over a vast area, at a speed of about 30 km/h, for tens of kilometers. Periodic volcanic eruptions in the Hawaiian Islands lead to a gradual increase in their volume due to the build-up of slopes of solidified lava. Thus, the volume of the Mauna Loa volcano reaches 21,103 km3; it is larger than the volume of any known volcano on the globe. Hawaiian-type volcanic eruptions occur on the Samoan islands in eastern Africa, in Kamchatka and on the Hawaiian islands themselves - Mauna Loa and Kilauea.
3.1 Strombolian type
The standard of the Strombolian type is the eruption of the Stromboli volcano (Aeolian Islands) in the Mediterranean Sea.
Typically, volcanoes of this type are stratovolcanoes and the eruptions that occur in them are accompanied by strong explosions and tremors, emissions of vapors and gases, volcanic ash, and lapilli. Sometimes there is an outpouring of lava onto the surface, but due to the significant viscosity, the length of the flows is small.
Eruptions of this type are observed at the volcano
Itzalko in Central America; at Mount Mihara in Japan; at a number of Kamchatka volcanoes (Klyuchevskoy, Tolbachek and others). A similar eruption, in terms of the sequence of events and the products released, but on a larger scale, occurred in 79. This eruption can be classified as a subtype of the Strombolian eruption and called Vesuvian. The eruption of Mount Vesuvius, partly Etna and Vulcano (Mediterranean Sea), was preceded by a strong earthquake. Then a column of white steam burst out from the crater, expanding upward. Gradually, the ejected ashes and rock fragments gave the “cloud” a black color and began to fall to the ground along with a terrible downpour. The lava outpouring was relatively small. The lava had an average composition and flowed down the mountainside at a speed of 7 km/h. The main destruction was caused by an earthquake and volcanic ash and bombs falling to the ground, which were fragments of rock and frozen clots of lava. Streams of ash showers formed liquid mud, with which the cities located on the slopes of Vesuvius were buried - Pompeii (in the south), Herculaneum (in the southwest) and Stabia (in the southeast). 3.3. Volcanoes of Russia and other types.
The dome type is characterized by the squeezing and pushing out of viscous (andesitic, dacite or rhyolitic) lava by strong pressure from the volcano channel and the formation of domes (Puy de Dome in Auvergne, France; Central Semyachik, on Kamchatka), crypto-domes (Seva-Shinzan on the island of Hokkaido , Japan) and obelisks (Shiveluch in Kamchatka).
In the Vulcan type, gases play a large role, producing explosions and emissions of huge clouds, overflowing with large amounts of rock fragments, lava and ash. The lavas are viscous and form small flows (Avachinskaya Sopka and Karymskaya Sopka in Kamchatka). Each of the main types of eruption is divided into several subtypes (Strombolian type, Vesuvian subtype).
Of these, Peleian, Krakatoa, and Maar stand out, which to one degree or another are intermediate between the dome and Vulcan types. volcanic formation lava eruption
The Peleian subtype was identified by the eruption of the Montagne Pele volcano (Bald Mountain) in the spring of 1902 on the island of Martinique in the Atlantic Ocean. In the spring of 1902 Mount Montagne Pelee, which for many years was considered an extinct volcano and on the slopes of which the city of Saint-Pierre grew, was suddenly shaken by a powerful explosion. The first and subsequent explosions were accompanied by the appearance of cracks on the walls of the volcanic cone, from which black scorching clouds erupted, consisting of droplets of molten lava, hot (over 7000C) ash and gases. On May 8, one of these clouds rushed south and literally destroyed the city of Saint-Pierre within a few minutes. About 28,000 inhabitants died; Only those who managed to swim from the shore were saved. The ships that did not have time to unmoor burned or were capsized, and the water in the harbor began to boil. Only one person survived in the city, protected by the thick walls of the city prison. The volcanic eruption ended only in October. Extremely viscous lava slowly squeezed out a 400m high plug from the volcanic channel, forming a unique natural obelisk. However, soon top part it broke off along an oblique crack; the height of the remaining acute-angled needle was about 270 m, but it was destroyed under the influence of weathering processes already in 1903. The eruption of the volcano of the same name located between the islands of Sumatra and Java is taken as the standard for the Krakatau type. On May 20, 1883, from a German warship sailing through the Sunda Strait (between the islands of Java and Sumatra), they saw a huge pine-shaped cloud rising from the Krakatoa group of islands. A huge height of the cloud was noted - about 10-11 km, and frequent explosions - every 10-15 minutes, accompanied by the release of ash to a height of 2-3 km. After the May eruption, the volcano’s activity subsided somewhat, and only in mid-July a new powerful eruption occurred. However, the main disaster took place on August 26. On this afternoon, on the ship "Medea" they noticed a column of ash already 27-33 km high, and the smallest volcanic ash was raised to a height of 60-80 km and for 3 years after the eruption was in upper layers atmosphere. The sound of the explosion was heard in Australia (5 thousand kilometers from the volcano), and the blast wave circled the planet three times. Even on September 4, i.e. 9 days after the explosion, the recording barometers continued to record minor fluctuations atmospheric pressure. By evening, ash and rain fell on the surrounding islands. Ash fell all night; on ships located in the Sunda Strait, the thickness of its layer reached 1.5 m. By 6 o'clock in the morning a terrible storm broke out in the strait - the sea overflowed its banks, the height of the waves reached 30-40m. The waves destroyed nearby cities and roads on the islands of Java and Sumatra; the population of the islands closest to the volcano died completely. The total number of victims, according to official data, reached 40,000.
A powerful volcanic explosion destroyed two-thirds of the main island of the Krakatoa archipelago - Rakata: a 4-6 km2 part of the island with two volcanic cones Danan and Perbuatan was thrown into the air. In their place a failure formed, the depth of the sea reaching 360 m. The tsunami wave reached the coasts of France and Panama in a few hours; off the coast of South America, its propagation speed was still 483 km/h. Maar-type eruptions have occurred in past geological eras. They were characterized by strong gas explosions, releasing significant amounts of gaseous and solid products. The outpouring of lava did not occur due to the very acidic composition of the magma, which, due to its viscosity, clogged the volcano’s mouth and led to explosions. As a result, explosion craters with a diameter ranging from hundreds of meters to several kilometers appeared. These depressions were sometimes surrounded by a low shaft formed from ejected products, among which there are fragments of lavas. Similar to tubes of explosions of the Maar type - diatmers. Their location is known in Siberia, South Africa and other places. These are cylindrical tubes that vertically intersect the layers and end in a funnel-shaped expansion. The diameters are filled with breccia - rock with fragments of shale and sandstone. Breccias are diamond-bearing, from which they produce industrial production diamonds
Vast spaces of Russia in Europe and Asia belong to sedentary sections of the earth's crust - platforms - and only on the outskirts (Caucasus, Central Asia, Far East) there are geosynclinal zones characterized by high seismicity and active volcanism. Among the recently extinct volcanoes in the Main Caucasus Range are the already mentioned Elbrus and Kazbek. in the Transcaucasus, Eastern Sayan, Baikal region, Transbaikalia, in the Far East and Northeast of Russia, young outpourings of effusive rocks are known, and in some places volcanoes have been preserved - signs of recent volcanism here. Active volcanoes in Russia are located only on the easternmost edge: on the Kamchatka Peninsula and the Kuril Islands.
Research on Russian volcanoes began in the 18th century. friend and contemporary of M.V. Lomonosov, traveler and geographer S.P. Krasheninnikov, who visited and studied Kamchatka in 1737-1741. His talented book “Description of the Earth of Kamchatka”, where two chapters “about fire-breathing mountains” and “0 hot springs” are for the first time devoted to a description of Kamchatka volcanoes and geysers, is the first scientific work on the study of volcanoes and the beginning of Russian volcanology. Later, rare fragmentary information about the volcanoes of Kamchatka was received from sailors and travelers and somewhat more detailed information from participants in some expeditions of the last century: A. Postels, A. Erman, K. Ditmar, K. I. Bogdanovich and others. The most in-depth studies of Kamchatka volcanoes began in 1931 by A. N. Zavaritsky, who revealed the connection between the linear location of volcanoes and the internal structure of the peninsula, with possible deep faults in the earth’s crust along these directions.
In 1935, on the initiative of F. Yu. Levinson-Lessing, a volcanological station of the USSR Academy of Sciences was organized at the foot of Klyuchevskaya Sopka for systematic research observations of the modern activity of Kamchatka volcanoes.
Fragmentary information about volcanic activity on the Kuril Islands was published at the end of the last and beginning of this century by travelers B. R. Golovin and F. Krusenstern, D. Milne and G. Snow. After the Great Patriotic War The volcanoes of the Kuril Islands were studied in more detail by G.B. Korsunskaya and B.I. Vlodavets, and currently their study is continued by scientists from the Kamchatka Volcanological Station. The Kamchatka Peninsula is one of the few areas of the earth's surface abundantly saturated with volcanoes. Currently, there are at least 180 volcanoes, of which 14 are active, 9 are extinct volcanoes and more than 157 are extinct. In addition to volcanoes, Kamchatka abounds in geysers, hot springs and volcanic salsas.
The Kamchatka Peninsula is located in a mobile zone of the earth's crust, captured by alpine folding and volcanism, and belongs to the volcanic Pacific “Ring of Fire”. Intense volcanism in Kamchatka u u v is combined with high seismicity, with frequent earthquakes with a magnitude of up to 9 points. Both of these geological processes played and continue to play a significant role in the formation of internal structure, and the relief of the peninsula. The surface of the peninsula is typical for a mountainous volcanic country. Along the peninsula, two mountain ranges stretch in the northeast direction: the Sredinny Range runs in the western part, and the East Kamchatsky Range runs along the eastern coast.
The volcanoes of Kamchatka are located in three stripes along the peninsula. In the first, eastern, strip, most of the volcanoes are located, forming a chain in the form of a kind of mountain range, which stretches from the south from Cape Lopatka along the eastern coast to Kronotsky Lake, then, as it were, crosses the East Kamchatka Range and stretches further to the north along its western slopes .
The second, central, strip is made up of a group of few volcanoes confined to the Sredinny Range. The third, western, stripe includes several extinct volcanoes on the western coast of the peninsula.
Volcanic activity in Kamchatka probably began in pre-Paleozoic times and manifested itself four times before the Mesozoic, with the first, earliest stages of volcanism being limited to weak outpourings of basic lava. In the second and third stages (probably in the Paleozoic), lava outpourings occurred on a large scale and partially underwater conditions. In the Mesozoic, Paleogene and Neogene, volcanic activity on the peninsula resumed three times with varying intensity. Terrestrial and underwater eruptions of basaltic and andesitic lavas were accompanied by strong explosive activity and the accumulation of large masses of volcanic tuffs, agglomerates and tuff breccias.
The modern stage of volcanic activity in Kamchatka resumed at the beginning of the Quaternary period and continues to the present day, although with less intensity than in the early stages. as a result of multiple stages of eruptive volcanism, more than 40% of the surface of the peninsula is covered with products of volcanic eruptions. Modern volcanic activity is concentrated in the eastern zone, in which there is an active volcano for every 7 km. All modern volcanoes of Kamchatka are central stratovolcanoes in the structure of volcanic apparatuses and cones, and in terms of the nature of their activity they belong to all known types, except Hawaiian, which also took place in the recent past.
Of the active volcanoes, the most active are Klyuchevskoy, Karymsky, Avachinsky and Bezymyanny, which was considered extinct, but at the end of 1955 resumed its activity with a series of energetic eruptions that continued throughout the winter of 1955-1956; Shiveluch, Plosky Tolbachik, Gorely Ridge and Mutnovsky volcano are less active; inactive - Kizimen, Maly Semyachik. Zhupanovsky, Koryaksky, Ksudach and Ilyinsky. Decaying volcanoes include: Komarova volcano, Gamchen, Kronotskaya Sopka, -Uzon, Kikhpinych, Central Semyachik, Burlyashchiy, Opalny and Koshelev volcano.
More than 157 conical and dome-shaped volcanoes composed of volcanic products that showed no signs of activity in historical times are considered extinct. Most of the extinct volcanoes have been significantly destroyed by erosion, but some of them still represent the largest volcanic structures in Kamchatka in terms of height and mass (Kamen, Plosky volcanoes, etc.).
All modern volcanoes of Kamchatka, especially the most active ones, have been the objects of constant observations by Soviet volcanologists since 1935. There is no need to characterize the activity of each volcano here; this is done in special and periodical publications, and for a general idea of their activity it is enough to confine ourselves to information about the most characteristic volcanoes, which are the most active: Klyuchevskoy, Karymsky, Avachinsky and Bezymyanny.
The Kuril Islands are two ridges, of which the Greater Kuril Islands stretches southwest from Kamchatka for 1200 km to the Japanese island of Hokkaido; 50 km east of its southern part, the Lesser Kuril Ridge runs parallel to it for 105 km. Volcanic activity is observed exclusively in the Great Kuril Ridge, the islands of which are mainly of volcanic origin and only the northernmost and southernmost are composed of sedimentary rocks of Neogene age. These rocks serve here as the Foundation on which volcanic structures arose.
The volcanoes of the Kuril Islands are confined to deep faults in the earth's crust, which are continuations of the faults of Kamchatka. Together with the latter, they form one volcanic and tectonic Kuril-Kamchatka arc, convex towards the Pacific Ocean. On the Kuril Islands there are 25 active volcanoes (of which 4 are underwater), 13 dormant and more than 60 extinct. The volcanoes of the Kuril Islands have been studied very little. Among them stand out increased activity volcanoes Alaid, peak Sarychev Fuss, Snow and Milia.
Alaid Volcano is located on the first northern island (Atlasov Island) and is the most active of all the Kuril volcanoes. It is the highest (2239 m) and rises beautifully in the form of a regular cone directly from the surface of the sea. At the top of the cone, in a small depression, is the central crater of the volcano. By the nature of its eruptions, the Alaid volcano belongs to the ethno-Vesuvian type. Over the past 180 years, there have been eight known eruptions of this volcano and two eruptions of the side cone Taketomi, which formed during. Alaid eruption in 1934
Volcanic activity on the Kuril Islands is accompanied by numerous hot springs with temperatures from 36 to 100 C. The springs are varied in form and salt composition and are even less studied than volcanoes.
Conclusion
Modern active volcanoes are a striking manifestation of endogenous processes accessible to direct observation, which played a huge role in the development of geological science. However, the study of volcanism has not only educational significance. Active volcanoes, along with earthquakes, pose a formidable danger to nearby settlements. The moments of their eruptions often bring irreparable natural disasters, expressed not only in enormous material damage, but sometimes in mass death of the population. For example, the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 AD is well known, which destroyed the cities of Herculaneum, Pompeii and Stabia, as well as a number of villages located on the slopes and at the foot of the volcano. Several thousand people died as a result of this eruption.
Thus, modern active volcanoes, characterized by intense cycles of energetic eruptive activity and, unlike their ancient and extinct counterparts, are objects for scientific research volcanic observations, the most favorable, although far from safe.
List of used literature
2. Markhinin E.K. Volcanism. - M.: Nedra, 1985.
3. Taziev G. Volcanoes. - Per. with franc. - M.: Mysl, 1963.
4. McDonald G.A. Volcanoes. - Per. from English - M.: Mir, 1975.
5. Vlodavets V.I. Volcanoes of the Earth. - M.: Nauka, 1973.
6. Gushchenko I.I. Volcanic eruptions around the world. - M.: Nauka, 1979.
7. Ritman A. Volcanoes and their activities. -Per. from English - M.: Mir, 1964.
8. Lebedinsky V.I. Volcanoes and man. - M.: Nedra, 1967.
9. Marakushev A.A. Volcanism of the Earth//Nature. - 1984.-№9.
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Them. A. A. Trofimuk SB RAS explores the fire-breathing mountains of Kamchatka. Ahead is a major international project with the intriguing name KISS, designed to reveal the phenomenon of the mysterious Klyuchevskaya group of volcanoes, which has no analogues in the world.
“The study of processes inside volcanoes is a kind of “thriller”. If in other geological objects changes occur on time scales of millions or even billions of years, here everything can change extremely quickly - within a year, month or even days. With the help of modern geophysics methods, it is possible to observe the processes occurring under the volcano in real time, which is an extremely exciting task, the solution of which is not boring,” says the head of the seismic tomography laboratory, Doctor of Geological and Mineralogical Sciences Ivan Yurievich Kulakov.
Expeditionary activities started 3 years ago. Previously, scientists had to work with data provided by colleagues from other countries on various volcanoes around the world, located in Indonesia, South America and other places. The first expedition season in 2012, Siberian researchers began with a relatively simple task - they set up a network of 11 stations (in addition to 7 local ones) on the volcanoes of the Avachinskaya group, which residents of Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky call “home”, since they are located in close proximity from the city.
Here, geologists faced a serious problem: the volcanoes, which had previously been seismically active, suddenly became quiet after the installation of the stations, and it was not possible to collect the required amount of information on earthquakes. In addition, due to severe frosts, the batteries began to turn off, as a result, some stations completed their work earlier than planned. Scientists were helped by a relatively new method of noise tomography (proposed by our compatriot from Paris Nikolai Shapiro), which allows one to isolate useful seismic waves from the analysis of continuous recordings of natural noise. Thanks to him, he was able to construct a three-dimensional seismic model of the subsurface beneath the Avachinsky and Koryaksky volcanoes. So, it turned out that the first one is located on the edge of a large low-velocity anomaly, which, apparently, is a trace of a caldera formed as a result of a huge explosion 35-40 thousand years ago and subsequently filled with eruption products of Avacha Sopka. This is important information for geology, indicating the serious explosive potential of volcanoes located in the immediate vicinity of Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky.
The seismic station includes a sensor - a sensitive microphone that measures vibrations occurring in the ground in a very wide frequency range from hundreds of hertz to periods of tens and even hundreds of seconds. Using the recorder, they are converted into digital form and recorded on a regular memory card. Using these seismograms, geophysicists measure the “pulse of the earth” and study the deep structure of the subsoil. Currently, Novosibirsk residents have at their disposal a network of twenty stations, which are buried for one year; every season - on a new volcano. During this time, the equipment operates autonomously; data can be analyzed only after the devices are removed.
Since the accumulation of energy inside an active volcano occurs gradually, it is even useful for it to “discharge” from time to time. In this regard, Avachinskaya Sopka, located close to Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, most likely does not pose a particular danger to the city due to fairly regular eruptions of moderate power. The neighboring Koryaksky volcano is of much greater concern - it has an almost ideal shape, indicating the absence of explosions in the recent geological past. At the same time, gas emissions periodically occur there and seismic activity is observed. “It is to this that Kamchatka volcanologists today should pay the closest attention,” says Ivan Yurievich.
In 2013, the object of research by Novosibirsk scientists was the Gorely volcano, located 70 km from Petropavlovsk. It does not have such a beautiful cone as many other Kamchatka volcanoes, but it is interesting from the point of view of geology and modern activity. First of all, because it is located in the center of a caldera with a diameter of about 20 km, formed approximately 33.6 thousand years ago as a result of an eruption during which about 100 cubic meters were thrown into the air. km of rocks. “If this happened somewhere on Earth today, it would have a significant impact on the life of all humanity, and most modern problems would fade into the background against the backdrop of air pollution and climate change caused by the eruption,” notes Ivan Kulakov.
In the recent history of human civilization, there are examples of the significant impact of eruptions on the lives of peoples across the planet. For example, in 1815, the Tambora volcano exploded, devastating vast areas in Indonesia. The event had dire consequences: Climate change across the planet, resulting in famine, epidemics and unrest. Thus, in the first year after the eruption, there was snow in Canada and northern Europe in the summer. They say that the bicycle owes its appearance to Tambora - most of the horses became extinct, and people became concerned with alternative methods of transportation. Another disaster occurred in 1600, when the Huaynaputina volcano exploded in South America. In Russia, due to air pollution caused by this eruption, there was a crop failure in 1601-1603 and severe hunger, which ultimately led to the Troubles. Today, Huaynaputina's location makes little difference in the peaceful, hilly landscape of southern Peru.
Now Gorely is a shield volcano of basalt type. It is quite active, eruptions of moderate intensity occur approximately once every 20-40 years. The last one was in 1980, so we can expect the next one in the near future. In the crater of the mountain there is a large fumarole - a hole several meters in size, from which gases come out under extreme pressure. According to scientists, their mass is approximately 11 thousand tons per day (mostly they consist of water (93.5%), but they also contain CO2 and other substances). Such a “factory” has a disproportionately greater effect on the ecosystem than any man-made object created by man.
As a result of a preliminary analysis of seismograms recorded at Gorely, more than 200 earthquakes were identified in just a few days. Scientists used this information to build a seismic model of the subsurface beneath the volcano. However, they had problems specifying the initial model, which they could not immediately overcome. The solution was found by chance.
“In our calculations there is an important determining parameter that must be set in advance, manually - the ratio of the velocities of longitudinal and transverse waves. Typically for volcanoes its value is in the range of 1.7-1.85, but in the case of Gorelye, numbers in this range did not lead to a stable result. Once, by mistake, instead of 1.75, I used the absolutely absurd, as it seemed to me then, value of 1.5 - and suddenly everything fell into place. Subsequent testing showed that it is the most suitable for this case. During the literature review, we found that such anomalous low values Vp/Vs are a fairly clear indicator of the presence of gases in porous rock. This effect, for example, is actively used in oil exploration to separate gas and oil fields,” says Ivan Kulakov.
Thus, Siberian scientists found that the Gorely volcanic structure is a huge steam boiler, saturated with gas under pressure, which cannot escape, since the entire space of the mountain is covered with a thick cover of igneous rocks - basalt flows. Fortunately, there is a “safety valve” at the top - that same hole in the crater, only a few meters in size, through which the volcano “releases steam.” If, as a result of some process, this hole becomes clogged with something, an explosion of enormous destructive force can occur.
By the way, the famous Mutnovskaya geothermal power plant is located on the periphery of this steam boiler. Gas here comes to the surface through specially drilled wells, enters turbines under high pressure and is converted into electricity.
Last year, Novosibirsk scientists began researching the Klyuchevskaya group of volcanoes located in Kamchatka. Its uniqueness lies in the fact that in a relatively small area of only about 80 km in size there are concentrated volcanoes with fundamentally various compositions and eruption regimes, some of which are record holders in certain categories. Here is the highest fire-breathing mountain in Eurasia - Klyuchevskaya Sopka. In 1956, Bezymyanny Volcano experienced one of the most powerful explosions of the 20th century. The 1976 Tolbachik eruption was one of the most productive in the world in terms of the volume of basaltic lava erupted. “It should also be noted that the volcanoes of this group tend to change their composition quite quickly - within decades. All this indicates a very complex feeding system under the Klyuchevskaya group, which determines the enormous interest of the world scientific community in studying the deep structure beneath it using geophysical methods,” says Ivan Yuryevich.
The scientists decided to start the study from the Tolbachik volcano, where a major eruption occurred a year before the expedition. From November 2012 to August 2013, lava flowed abundantly from the volcano, forming rivers of fire 20-30 kilometers long, covering vast areas. Such massive outpourings should lead to deformations in the earth's crust, which, it is assumed, can be recorded by seismographs. Last summer, Novosibirsk scientists installed 20 seismic stations on Tolbachik (in addition to 10 belonging to the local geophysical service). The work also included geological research and sampling for petrological analyses, which were carried out by Academician N.L. Dobretsov.
This expedition is a kind of rehearsal for a large-scale study that is planned to be carried out in the coming year. “In 2015, an unprecedented experiment with the sonorous name KISS (Klyuchevskoy Investigation - Seismic Structure of Extraordinary Volcanic System) should take place. It will be carried out by an international team, which, in addition to Novosibirsk residents, will include German and French scientists, as well as specialists from the Kamchatka branch of the Geophysical Service of the Russian Academy of Sciences and the Institute of Volcanology and Seismology of the Far Eastern Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences. About 80 stations will be located throughout the Klyuchevskaya group (60 of them will be brought from Germany). If they work for one year, this will provide unique data that will allow us to obtain fundamentally new knowledge about the deep feeding mechanisms of volcanoes. “The Klyuchevskaya group is a unique geological object, and you can be sure that the results obtained as part of the planned expedition will attract the attention of the entire world scientific community,” says Ivan Kulakov.
Sources
VKpress (vkpress.ru), 01/20/2015
Scientific Russia (scientificrussia.ru), 01/20/2015
Is humanity ready for catastrophic volcanic eruptions?
At the beginning of January 2019, the Kamchatka volcano Shiveluch, which “awakened” last year, became active. The volcano continues to periodically “shoot out” emissions of ash and gas - experts warn about the danger of its emissions for air travel, at times raising the aviation color code to a dangerous “red”.
Scientists from the Institute of Petroleum Geology and Geophysics SB RAS are exploring the most dangerous volcanoes of Kamchatka
Employees of the Institute of Oil and Gas Geology and Geophysics named after. A.A. Trofimuk SB RAS keeps the active volcanoes of Kamchatka under control. Their eruptions can pose a danger to the Pacific air routes and Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky.
A delegation of the German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD) visited INGG SB RAS
Institute of Oil and Gas Geology and Geophysics named after. A.A. Trofimuk SB RAS was visited by the head of the Moscow branch of DAAD, Dr. Andreas Höschen, and the head of the DAAD Information Center at NSTU Anna Hess. The guests got acquainted with the work of the Institute and assessed the prospects for the development of international relations.
The Iceland plume is to blame for the melting of the Greenland ice sheet
Scientists have found an explanation for the melting of the Greenland ice shell. Geophysicists have linked the anomalous melting of ice under the central part of the island to the influence of the Icelandic hot spot. The research results were published in the prestigious journal Nature Geoscience.
Trud found 5 rare specialties and found out where they teach them and how much they pay after receiving a diploma
Volcanologists, oceanographers, astronomers and aircraft and rocket designers are the dream professions of many children. Trud figured out where you can learn to become such specialists and where you can work later.
“As a child, I dreamed of being an astronaut, but by school I learned that you can be interested in space from Earth, that is, to be an astronomer. But, of course, I won’t be able to become one: where will I study and what will I work for later?” - Vitaly, a student at the Faculty of Economics, laments about a lost childhood dream.
Many current students of ordinary specialties say that they used to dream of becoming professionals in something romantic and worthy of respect. They imagine such professions as researchers, intelligence officers and aircraft builders.
Oceanologist
Specialists in “water,” which occupies about 70% of the entire Earth’s surface, study the interaction between the ocean and the atmosphere. In addition to air, the ocean interacts with all continents, and also exchanges energy and various substances between its parts.
Mainly oceanology in modern society perceived as a hobby. In Moscow alone there are three departments that train such specialists: the Department of Oceanology of the Faculty of Geography of Moscow State University, the Department of Physics of Sea and Land Waters of the Faculty of Physics of Moscow State University and the Department of Thermohydromechanics of the Ocean of the Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology.
The core of the study is to learn how to identify the role of the ocean in climate change, which in light of the current environmental situation may prove to be a popular activity. Job prospects - both domestic and foreign organizations for the study of the ocean. Mostly graduates get the chance scientific work. But if you wish, you can also do organizational work - managing a laboratory or a private institute.
Astronomer
It would seem that an ancient and widespread profession, today in terms of education is not so popular. Even at the main university of the country - Moscow State University - there are only about 20 people studying in one stream of the astronomy department.
In general, you can get closer to the stars with the help of the physics and mechanics and mathematics departments of leading universities. Among the entrance exams, of course, is physics.
For those who want to go on to work in their profession, there is only one way out: a university, postgraduate studies, a PhD thesis, and more in-depth scientific work. Thus, it is best for a long-term astronomer to go on to write a doctorate, since the salaries of such specialists directly depend on their academic degrees. The approximate size of the increase for a protected candidate's thesis is about 3 thousand rubles.
It is not surprising that almost all promising specialists, having received an excellent astronomical education in Russia, try to go to work abroad. In Europe and the USA, Russian stellar researchers are in good and deserved demand.
“If we are talking about whether Russia needs such a profession, then the answer is most likely negative. Although, indeed, many are interested in this area of knowledge - it is very interesting. My advice is to study at home and try to go to promising institutes abroad,” says school physics teacher Ksenia Anapova.
Egyptologist
A specialist in the study of one of the most ancient civilizations is an equally attractive specialty for inquisitive young people.
Students and applicants of the Russian State University for the Humanities have the opportunity to receive such an education, as well as the opportunity to study the specialty “history and culture of Latin America”.
“At the Educational and Scientific Center of Egyptology named after. Golenishchev of the Russian State University for the Humanities at the Faculty of History of Art since 2000, training has been conducted in the specialization “Civilizations of the Nile Valley”. Professors and teachers of the center participate in the largest international congresses Egyptologists and Orientalist conferences. During the course of their studies, students undergo a museum and local history internship in Egypt (Giza) and a museum orientation in one of the provincial museums of Russia or Ukraine,” commented the rector of the university, Efim Pivovar, on the activities of the faculty.
In addition, on the basis of a bilateral agreement between the Russian State University for the Humanities and Helwan University in Cairo, students have the opportunity to annually study Arabic in Egypt and receive a certificate. The competition for Egyptologists, according to the rector, in 2010 was five people per place.
“The Mesoamerican Center is also successfully operating at the Russian State University for the Humanities, which recruits students for the specialty “history and culture of Latin America,” where students will be able to specialize in both the ancient pre-Columbian history of the continent, including the study of Mayan hieroglyphic writing, and the problems of the countries of modern Latin America,” - notes the rector.
Rocket scientist
The childhood dream of every second boy is to connect his life with space and aviation. If by the age of 17 the desire has not yet evaporated, there is an opportunity to go into aircraft and rocket science.
You can become a Bachelor of Engineering and Technology in this specialty after graduating from MSTU. Bauman. Similar departments exist in all specialized universities.
In addition to design knowledge, such education is strong in that future specialists study in depth a variety of computer technologies, which can be useful in any field. In addition, during the training process, students are given the basics of organizing production, which can subsequently help them become managers. Job prospects - both in Russia and abroad.
“Such specialists will not be left without work: despite their seemingly narrow education, graduates can even work in automobile concerns. I think that if they have already learned how to design rockets or airplanes, they will definitely be able to handle cars,” comments Vitaly, a specialist in the selection of technical personnel at a large automobile company.
Volcanologist
Volcanologists in Russia are a piece of goods. Universities do not train volcanologists: those who want to study lava mountains enter the faculties of petrology (they study how magma is formed and erupted), geophysics or geochemistry (they need to understand and be able to interpret the geophysical and geochemical processes occurring in a volcano).
In Moscow, education can be obtained at the Faculty of Geology of Moscow State University, which is one of the Russian centers for the study of volcanoes.
More often, such specialists study at geological faculties, but there are physicists and geophysicists among them. Many people become interested in volcanoes following the example of their parents or relatives: entire dynasties work at the research institute.
Of course, competition for chairs for volcanologists is extremely low. Despite the romance and attractiveness of the profession for yesterday's school graduates, many of them realize in time that they cannot make much money in science, and go to economics or law faculties.
Many graduates of this specialty remain in the capital and only occasionally visit research sites - Kamchatka, the Caucasus, the Urals, or volcanoes and mountain ranges abroad.
The salary of volcanologists is no different from the salary of any scientific employee. A junior researcher can earn about 10 thousand rubles. One hope is for grants that can increase wages fivefold. Professor of the Faculty of Geography of Moscow State University Sergei Gorshkov notes that many volcanologists receive grants. Including young people who work at the institute for only 5–7 years.
Numbers
- 5 people per place made a competition for the specialty “civilizations and the Nile Valley”, where Egyptologists are trained, at the Russian State University for the Humanities in 2010
3 departments in Moscow universities offer students training in the specialty “oceanologist”
25 people - the maximum number of students in the astronomy department of the country's main university
10 thousand rubles is the monthly salary of a junior researcher studying volcanoes
260 thousand per year - the cost of training at the Geological Faculty of Moscow state university
14 universities throughout Russia are preparing graduates with a degree in aviation and rocket engineering
Poll: Would you study for an unusual specialty?
Alexey Ivantsov, MIREA, Faculty of Electronics:
I would not go for such specialties, because you need to have a special interest and love for such professions. Such an interest could be, for example, continuing the career of parents or grandparents. This is already a family affair, a whole dynasty. Well, or you need to be seriously interested in this from childhood. Otherwise, later, if you change your mind, it will be quite difficult to change profession with such an education. Well, the last option: you need to be born for this. But this is some kind of fatalism.
Alena Balukhtina, VSNA Ministry of Finance of the Russian Federation,
financial and economic
faculty:
Yes, I would like. Indeed, despite their narrow focus, such professions are quite in demand. In addition, they require painstaking study and good immersion in work, which is always good for the brain. This is great because it is unusual, and in everyday life there is little originality. For example, I study finance, but what do I actually do? I don't know. I would like to do something useful. And such professions - good way escape from the grayness.
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Alexey Saltykov, MGUKI, faculty
socio-cultural
activities:
Of course, I would like to become an astronomer. To study the Eagle Nebula and monitor the decay of superstars, the creation of new elements, as well as to study dark energy and the big bang theory. I would like to know how the Universe works, especially since I have been fascinated by stars since childhood. But I think my family would not have approved of this choice, and in a few years I myself would not have approved. It’s very difficult to find a job, and even if you do find one, you won’t be able to survive on interest alone with such salaries.
02:26 — REGNUM Long-period volcanic earthquakes, or more precisely, an increase in their activity, directly foreshadow volcanic eruptions. This is stated in a study by scientists published in the journal Nature GeoScience after large-scale observations of the Klyuchevskaya group of volcanoes in Kamchatka, the correspondent reports. IA REGNUM.
According to volcanologists, the mechanism of earthquakes that occur under volcanoes is not similar to “ordinary” tremors that are caused by the movement of tectonic plates.
“Earthquakes that occur under giants are caused by the movement of magma and changes in pressure in the magma chamber. Long-period volcanic earthquakes are observed all over the world, but most often they are localized very close to the surface, that is, at a depth of the first hundreds of meters - kilometers. But deep earthquakes are especially interesting: they correspond to the activation of the deepest part of the magmatic system and are one of the very first harbingers of an upcoming eruption,” - explained a leading researcher at the Institute of Volcanology and Seismology of the Far Eastern Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences and the Seismology Laboratory of the Institute of Earth Physics in Paris Nikolai Shapiro, the words of which are quoted by the website of the Russian Science Foundation.
In Kamchatka, scientists studied the Klyuchevskaya group of volcanoes, which has a deep source located at a depth of about 30 km. From it, magma rises through a complex system of channels into smaller chambers located under each volcano.
For two years, geophysicists conducted observations before the large eruption of the Plosky Tolbachik volcano, which began on November 27, 2012. As a result, the scientists found that the activity of deep long-period events increased in the two years before the Plosky Tolbachik eruption, which corresponds to a gradual activation and increase in pressure in the deep magma chamber. The maximum seismic activity at depth was reached several months before the eruption of Plosky Tolbachik.
“We were able to establish a connection between long-period earthquakes at depth and in a shallow near-surface source and, thus, determine how long it took for activity to move from depth to the surface. We measured that the time between peaks of activity is about 2−3 months. Most likely, it was precisely this time interval that was needed for the pressure in the magmatic system to spread from depth to the surface,” - Nikolai Shapiro comments.
As reported IA REGNUM, the ashfall zone around the Kambalny volcano in Kamchatka left all animals - foxes, wolverines, ducks and even crows. As experts from the Kronotsky Nature Reserve suggest, this is due to the fact that in the reservoirs closest to the volcano, the water is poisoned by volcanic ash.
Kambalny is the southernmost volcano of Kamchatka. It began to erupt on March 25, 2017. Before this, nothing was known about its activity - for many centuries there is not a single evidence of its eruption. Volcanologists installed a video camera to record the activity of the volcano.
