Diseases as a global problem. The essence of the problem: deteriorating health conditions in many developing countries, population explosion, unsanitary living conditions of the population, medical

Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation

Federal Agency for Education

State Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education "Syktyvkar State University"

Faculty of History and International Relations

Specialty "International Relations"

Test.

“Global problems of our time: Mass diseases, epidemics: AIDS, influenza, cholera, plague, cancer, heart disease.”

Completed by: student of group 547,

Kazakova Anna Vyacheslavovna.

Checked by: Doctor of Historical Sciences, Professor Makarychev A.S.

Syktyvkar 2010

Introduction………………………………………………………………3

AIDS…………………………………………………………………. .............5

Flu……………………………………………………………………………………… ………..6

Cholera……………………………………………………………………7

Plague………………………………………………………………………………………………8

Cancer……………………………………………………………………………………… ……...9

Heart diseases…………………………………………………………………… …..10

Conclusion……………………………………………………………………...12

Appendix……………………………………………………………..13

Introduction

Global problems of our time include a wide range of phenomena that humanity considers as a threat to life. Global means affecting the interests of the whole world. These problems require joint efforts of the entire world community to overcome.

At the present stage of development, humanity is faced with an increasing number of global problems. But the chances of solving them also increase. It is necessary to note the fact that awareness of the emergence of a problem and the search for its solution arises only when humanity faces this problem face to face.

One of the most important problems of humanity is the problem of health. All kinds of mass diseases and epidemics claim millions of lives. Diseases are the number one cause of increased mortality rates. Almost every year we hear about the emergence of new forms of diseases already known to us. Scientists are working to create drugs around the clock.

The sources of epidemics can be completely different. Only in different parts of the planet do outbreaks of different diseases occur, and there are reasons for this. In third world countries, diseases caused by hunger and unsanitary conditions, such as plague, cholera, and ulcers, occur more often.

In developed countries, they have learned to cope with such diseases, but they have been replaced by “new generation” diseases, many of which are currently incurable. For example, the greatest mortality is caused by cancer, AIDS, and various heart diseases.

We can talk for a very long time about the reasons for the high mortality rate from diseases in developed countries, where medicine has reached a high level. However, in general they are clear: technological progress makes our lives easier, but at the cost of our health. Harmful radiation causes many diseases. The rhythm of city life speaks for itself: stress, lack of sleep, overwork, poor ecology - all this contributes to the development of diseases.

Of course, humanity has already done a lot to overcome the spread of diseases. But the victory over one epidemic is followed by the emergence of another, more complex one. Viruses are becoming more resistant.

Let us consider the most common mass diseases of the 20th and early 21st centuries.

First, we need to define the term epidemic: the widespread spread of an infectious disease. A mass disease is essentially the same, but it is not necessarily infectious and can be caused by other reasons.

AIDS . One of the most terrible diseases in our time is the plague of the twentieth century, AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome). This disease is scary because it currently has no cure. Humanity felt completely defenseless in the face of the unfamiliar and exclusively treacherous enemy. For this reason, another epidemic has spread on Earth - the epidemic of fear of AIDS.

The world was also shocked that the United States was among the first and most affected countries by AIDS. The disease has called into question many of the values ​​of modern Western civilization: sexual freedom and freedom of movement. AIDS has challenged the entire modern way of life.

Since the 1980s, the spread of AIDS has reached epidemic levels. According to modern data, there are currently about 40 million patients, and the number of victims of the disease over the 20 years of its existence is close to 20 million. The contagiousness of AIDS, its rapid spread and incurability have earned it the fame of the “plague of the twentieth century,” the most terrible and incomprehensible viral disease of our time.

It must also be said that the problem of AIDS is not only a medical problem, but also a psychological and social one. This was especially evident at the beginning of the epidemic, when the main feeling towards HIV-infected people was the fear of becoming infected, multiplied by the lack of reliable information about how HIV infection can and cannot occur.

Recently, reports have begun to appear in the media that a vaccine has been created that can cure AIDS. Although this information is somewhat distrustful, it gives hope to millions of people.

Flu. Perhaps the most common disease in the world. We hear about the next flu epidemic almost every year, and each time it takes on new forms, and scientists have to look for new vaccines to treat it. During this time, the flu manages to claim many lives.

Influenza epidemics arise unexpectedly, incapacitate large masses of people at once, thereby introducing anarchy into production, disrupting the rhythm of the country, and interfering with the implementation of planned plans.

The world knows such terrible epidemics of the past as the “Spanish flu” and “Asian flu”, which claimed the lives of up to 4 million people.

It would seem that the flu is a disease that is well known to everyone; it is perceived as a common occurrence and practically does not scare anyone. However, as soon as you relax, a new form of flu appears. Recently, there has been a tendency to contract influenza from animals.

In 2005, there was an outbreak of bird flu. It was managed to be localized fairly quickly, but there were still many casualties. In 2009, the “swine” or “Mexican” flu epidemic began. The latest virus is also quite atypical: it is most dangerous for people under 50, although older people and children are usually at risk.

In such conditions, the question arises: what to expect from the flu next time? Who will it affect and from what animal will a person become infected? Will scientists around the world be able to find a vaccine and prevent the epidemic?

Cholera. Cholera (Greek Cholera - to expire) is an acute infectious disease characterized by damage gastrointestinal tract, impaired water-salt metabolism and dehydration of the body; refers to quarantine infections.

Cholera is transmitted primarily through contaminated water and food and is closely associated with poor environmental management. The main reasons for the spread of the disease are the absence or shortage of safe water and sanitation, usually combined with poor environmental conditions. To typical areas increased risk These include urban slums where basic infrastructure is lacking, as well as camps for internally displaced persons and refugees where minimum needs for clean water and sanitation are not met. However, it must be emphasized that the belief that cholera epidemics are caused by the corpses of people killed as a result of disasters, natural or man-made, is false. Despite this, rumors and panic often begin to spread after disasters. On the other hand, the consequences of disasters, such as the destruction of water and sanitation systems or mass displacement of populations into inadequate and overcrowded camps, can increase the risk of transmission.

Since 2005, new occurrences of cholera have been observed along with a constant increase in the size of vulnerable populations living in unsanitary conditions. Cholera remains a global public health threat and a major indicator of poor social development. While the disease has ceased to be a problem in countries where minimum hygiene standards are observed, it remains a threat in almost every developing country. The number of cholera cases notified to WHO in 2006 increased dramatically, reaching levels seen in the late 1990s. In total, 236,896 cases were reported from 52 countries, including 6,311 deaths, representing an overall increase of 79% compared to the number of cases reported in 2005. This increase is due to a number of large outbreaks that have occurred in countries where no cases have been reported for several years. It is estimated that only a small proportion of cases are reported to WHO - less than 10%. Thus, the true burden of the disease is significantly underestimated.

The development of the disease is also evidenced by the latest outbreak in Haiti in the fall of 2010. About a thousand people have already died.

Plague. Plague (lat. pestis) - acute natural focal infection a group of quarantine infections, occurring with an extremely severe general condition, fever, damage to the lymph nodes, lungs and other internal organs, often with the development of sepsis. The disease is characterized by high mortality.

Plague is also a disease that humanity has encountered more than once. Perhaps in the Middle Ages, the plague claimed more lives than other diseases.

Every year the number of people infected with the plague is about 2.5 thousand people, with no downward trend.

According to available data, according to the World Health Organization, from 1989 to 2004, about forty thousand cases were recorded in 24 countries, with a mortality rate of about seven percent of the number of cases. In a number of countries in Asia (Kazakhstan, China, Mongolia and Vietnam), Africa (Tanzania and Madagascar), and the Western Hemisphere (USA, Peru), cases of human infection are recorded almost every year.

Under modern therapy, the mortality rate for plague does not exceed 5-10% if treatment is started early. In some cases, a transient form of the disease is possible, which is poorly amenable to intravital diagnosis and treatment (“fulminant form of plague”).

Cancer. Cancer is a type of malignant tumor that develops from epithelial tissue cells of various organs (skin, mucous membranes and many internal organs)

Another disease that causes fear in people of any age. Cancer can occur at any age, on any organ, from completely different factors. Cancer is probably no less scary than AIDS, although it can be cured in the early stages.

The incidence of malignant tumors is continuously growing. Every year, about 6 million new cases of malignant tumors are registered worldwide. The highest incidence among men was noted in France (361 per 100,000 population), among women in Brazil (283.4 per 100,000). This is partly due to the aging population. It should be noted that most tumors develop in people over 50 years of age, and every second cancer patient is over 60 years of age. Mortality from cancer ranks second in the world after diseases of the cardiovascular system.

The worst thing is the low possibility of detecting cancer and seeing a doctor in time. Many people do not attach importance to their health. In developing countries, treatment is unaffordable for many due to lack of funds. In developing countries, the incidence of cancer is increasing due to radiation exposure from many devices. And if we are talking about technical development, I think that we should not count on a decrease in the percentage of cancer cases.

Heart diseases. Heart disease is the leading cause of death worldwide: no other cause kills as many people every year as heart disease;

An estimated 17.1 million people died from STDs in 2004, accounting for 29% of all deaths worldwide. Of this number, 7.2 million people died from coronary heart disease and 5.7 million people died from stroke.

This problem affects low- and middle-income countries to varying degrees. More than 82% of deaths from SD occur in these countries, almost equally among men and women.

By 2030, an estimated 23.6 million people will die from SDs, mainly from heart disease and stroke, which are projected to remain the single leading causes of death. The largest percentage increase in these cases is expected to occur in the eastern Mediterranean region, and the largest number of deaths is expected to occur in the southeastern region.

More than 80% of deaths from STDs worldwide occur in low- and middle-income countries.

Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below

Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.

Posted on http://www.allbest.ru/

STATE AUTONOMOUS PROFESSIONAL EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION OF THE KRASNODAR REGION

"KRASNODAR HUMANITIES AND TECHNOLOGY COLLEGE"

Abstract research work

Current problems of human health in the modern world

1st year students of the pedagogical department

Dyakova Ekaterina Anatolyevna

Scientific adviser:

Serova N.N.

Krasnodar, 2017

Introduction

1. History of the development of health care

2. Impact of the environment on human health

3. Modern concept of health and healthy lifestyle

4. Ecopolis instead of a metropolis

5. Ways to improve human health

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

Object of study are current health problems.

Subject of study- population health.

Cspruce work: study current problems of public health in modern conditions.

To achieve this goal, it is advisable to decide a number of tasks:

Define the concept of “health”;

Describe the theoretical aspects of studying population health;

Consider the methodological principles of assessment public health population;

Identify current public health problems;

Reveal measures to improve the efficiency of the healthcare system.

Work structure. The work consists of an introduction, five chapters, a conclusion, and a list of references.

In accordance with the latest ideas, human health is a synthetic category that includes, in addition to physiological, moral, intellectual and mental components. Hence, to one degree or another, not only the person who has a chronic disease or physical defects is sick, but also the one who is distinguished by moral pathology, weakened intellect, and unstable psyche. Such a person, as a rule, is not able to perform his social functions on an equal basis with someone who is completely healthy. From this point of view, according to authoritative scientists, almost every second inhabitant of the planet is not completely healthy.

The problem of human health is quite “old”.

We can say that its global nature appeared even earlier than other global problems. Indeed, even during the era of transition to a capitalist formation, marked by the rapid development of trade relations and population migration, formidable epidemics and pandemics (the spread of a disease to entire countries and continents, wider than during an epidemic) spread throughout the world, against which national measures fights and warnings turned out to be ineffective. Required agreed international actions on “global” public health protection.

Facts about the spread of new diseases are increasingly emerging. Data are accumulating on the increased impact of harmful emissions and toxic waste on heredity: the percentage of newborn children with genetic deviations from the norm is growing. Meanwhile, in the laboratories of scientists, tens of thousands of new chemical compounds are born every year, the effects of which on the human body, as a rule, are unknown to anyone.

A reproach for civilization is the persistence of high infant mortality rates on the planet. Experts from the World Health Organization (WHO) believe that if it does not decrease, then during the last decade of the twentieth century, more than 100 million children will die from disease and malnutrition in underdeveloped countries. In this case, most often we are talking about common illnesses: pneumonia, tetanus, measles, whooping cough, etc.

The time has come when the level of civilization of any country should be determined not only (and perhaps not so much) by the development of the latest branches of the economy (say, the production of electronic computers or space technology), but by the life expectancy of the population.

1 . ANDhistory of health care development

The issue of protecting health and preventing diseases at a certain period of life becomes extremely pressing for every person. Throughout human history, mortality from disease has been higher than from all wars, man-made disasters and natural disasters.

The plague epidemic of 1347-1351, known as the “Black Death,” which originated from rodents in Central Asia, was basically an epidemic of pneumonic plague, enhanced by the transmission of microbes from person to person through fleas. This epidemic has spread throughout the world. At least 40 million people became its victims. It was the worst epidemic in human history. In Europe, 20 million people died (a quarter of the population). Due to the “Black Death”, carried by rats and fleas, the British had to burn London to the ground in 1666. 25 million people died in Mongolia and China, some Chinese provinces died out by 90%. Subsequently, outbreaks of the plague were repeated locally until the 19th century, when its causative agent was isolated and ways to combat it were found.

New times have brought new diseases. Cholera, typhus, influenza, measles and smallpox - for the 19th-20th centuries. In total, billions of people have suffered from these diseases.

The epidemic of the so-called “Spanish flu”, which swept across Europe in 1918, is considered the worst in modern human history - then about 50 million people died from the flu. For the past few years, a group of scientists from a secret laboratory at the American Center for Disease Control has been researching the causes of this massive epidemic. American scientists have found that the 1918 influenza virus first appeared in birds, then mutated and became dangerous for humans. As a result of further changes, the virus was able to be transmitted from person to person, which became the cause of a monstrous epidemic.

Nowadays, the plague of the 20th century. called HIV infection. What is surprising is not so much the scale of the spread of the infection as the unpredictable features of its development. Cases of identifying AIDS symptoms in a number of homosexuals date back to the late 70s. Early 80s was identified etiological factor AIDS, and the disease has assumed the proportions characteristic of the beginning of an epidemic. The first person with classic AIDS symptoms died in 1959. The symptoms were so illogical for medicine that some of the organs were preserved. This made it possible, 30 years later, to isolate and study the virus that infected the body, which turned out to be HIV.

In 1989, the results of an analysis of one of the blood samples taken from an African resident in 1959 and preserved to this day were published. HIV fragments were also found in it. Finally, in 1998, after a focused search, fragments of the HIV genome were isolated from blood samples from 1959, which were then taken from a person now living in Kinshasa. Based on phylogenetic analysis, it was concluded that HIV-1 originated from the simian immunodeficiency virus, which became the source of at least three independent entries into the human population almost simultaneously between 1940 and 1950. That is, the first case of AIDS was registered and described back in 1959, at the same time, HIV was detected in blood samples from African residents. The first patients attracted attention only in the late 70s, i.e. in 20 years. They begin to be detected locally, only in one group of the population; initially, AIDS was even called a “disease of homosexuals.” Then an explosion followed, and in just over ten years the number of infected people exceeds 50 million! And this - under very limited conditions of transmission - only by injection, sexual intercourse and through “dirty” medical instruments. Other diseases (for example, syphilis) are transmitted in the same way, but nothing like this has ever happened.

However, the most alarming thing is that changes in viruses occur rapidly, explosive evolution occurs even at the level of one individual during the course of the disease. During an experiment on chimpanzees, it was found that six weeks after the initial infection with the hepatitis C virus, the isolated variants were no longer very similar to the variants of the initial pathogen and, moreover, differed from one monkey to another. That is, evolution proceeded not only rapidly, but also in a variety of ways. After 1-6 weeks, new variants appeared. Finally, the natural evolution of the virus in one organism led to such changes that reinfection with the initially infecting strain became possible. A similar evolution occurs in humans, and is also characteristic of other viruses. The human immunodeficiency virus, due to a number of inherent features, mutates a million times more intensely than DNA structures. This means that in one year it can undergo the same evolution as some slow-moving (in terms of mutation) virus, such as smallpox or herpes, undergoes in a million years.

The pandemic of infection caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is the largest event in human history at the end of the 20th century, which can be placed on a par with two world wars, both in terms of the number of victims and the damage it causes to society. AIDS, like a war, unexpectedly struck humanity and continues to attack, affecting new countries and continents. Unlike military operations, HIV infection spread unnoticed in most countries, and the consequences of this secret spread were already revealed to humanity - the illness and death of millions of people.

The disease itself and its direct and indirect consequences are catastrophic for humanity. By 1995, there were practically no more than a dozen countries left on Earth in which cases of HIV infection had not been officially announced. Consequently, combating the consequences of the pandemic has become a common task of the world community.

There have been times in the history of mankind when some infections caused more significant consequences, but they learned to fight them or at least suppress them with the help of quarantine measures, vaccines and antibiotics.

Although influenza continued to take its annual toll, malaria persisted in tropical areas, and cholera even staged occasional attacks, there remained a strong belief that improved means of prevention and treatment would make it possible to put an end to these enemies in the near future. It was believed that due to general changes in living conditions on Earth, thanks to the victories of the so-called civilization, many factors that caused the recurrence of pandemics disappeared.

In the case of HIV infection, humanity felt completely defenseless in the face of an unfamiliar and extremely insidious enemy. For this reason, another epidemic has spread on Earth - the epidemic of fear of AIDS.

The world was also shocked that the United States was among the first and most affected countries by AIDS. The disease has called into question many of the values ​​of modern Western civilization: sexual freedom and freedom of movement. AIDS has challenged the entire modern way of life.

To the potential “killers” of civilization in the 21st century. Other examples include Lassa fever, Rift Valley fever, Marburg virus, Bolivian hemorrhagic fever and the infamous “Ebola virus.” Their danger is often exaggerated, but it cannot be underestimated. Despite all the international conventions banning bacteriological weapons, such diseases can be genetically modified and turned into an absolute instrument of death. Even with all the achievements of modern medicine, the rapid spread of “improved” viruses in densely populated areas can throw humanity back into the Stone Age and even completely wipe it off the face of the Earth.

Of the 58 million deaths from all causes predicted by World Health Organization experts, 35 million deaths will be due to chronic diseases. This would be twice the number of deaths over 10 years from all infectious diseases (including HIV, malaria, tuberculosis) combined.

The first four places will be taken by cardiovascular diseases, cancer, chronic respiratory diseases and diabetes; 80% of deaths from chronic diseases occur in underdeveloped countries, where the bulk of the world's population lives. The Russian Federation is also included in this category, which, according to experts, for 2005-2015. will receive about 300 billion dollars less in the national budget. due to premature mortality from heart attacks, strokes and complications of diabetes. Greater damage - about 558 billion dollars. - only the Chinese economy will suffer.

The WHO report emphasizes that the current level of knowledge can cope with this problem. However, global efforts are not sufficient. This is especially true for the fight against smoking (4.9 million people die every year from diseases associated with tobacco use) and the obesity epidemic (currently 1 billion people are overweight). In Russia, every third child is born with a congenital disease, our child mortality rate is much higher than in the West, and the number of disabled people is growing. Over the past 40 years, humanity has received 72 new infections, with two or three infections dangerous to humans occurring every year. The head of the WHO Department of Infectious Diseases, David Heyman, said at the World Health Assembly that the emergence of new deadly viruses is almost inevitable. Most of all, he said, doctors fear a new strain of the influenza virus.

Now there is such a thing as emerging viruses, i.e. recently opened. Moreover, the process of discovering new viruses is continuous. At the same time, the diagnosis of diseases is improving and diagnostic tools are being improved. This contributes not only to the discovery of new viruses, but also to a clear establishment of the “virus-disease” connection where it had not been established before. This is mainly due to the apparent increase in viral infections. Although there is another factor - a total decrease in the state of the population's immune system.

2. Impact of the environment on human health

All processes in the biosphere are interconnected. Humanity is only a small part of the biosphere, and man is only one of the types of organic life - Homo sapiens (reasonable man). Reason separated man from the animal world and gave him enormous power.

For centuries, man has sought not to adapt to the natural environment, but to make it convenient for his existence.

1. Chemical pollution of the environment and human health.

Currently, human economic activity is increasingly becoming the main source of pollution of the biosphere. Gaseous, liquid and solid industrial wastes are entering the natural environment in increasing quantities. Various chemicals contained in waste, entering the soil, air or water, pass through ecological links from one chain to another, ultimately ending up in the human body.

It is almost impossible to find a place on the globe where pollutants are present in varying concentrations. Even in the ice of Antarctica, where there are no industrial productions and people live only at small scientific stations, scientists have discovered various toxic (poisonous) substances from modern industries. They are brought here by atmospheric currents from other continents.

Substances that pollute the natural environment are very diverse. Depending on their nature, concentration, and time of action on the human body, they can cause various adverse effects. Short-term exposure to small concentrations of such substances can cause dizziness, nausea, sore throat, and cough. The entry of large concentrations of toxic substances into the human body can lead to loss of consciousness, acute poisoning and even death. An example of such an action could be smog that forms in large cities in calm weather, or emergency releases of toxic substances into the atmosphere by industrial enterprises.

The body's reactions to pollution depend on individual characteristics: age, gender, health status. As a rule, children, elderly and sick people are more vulnerable.

When relatively small amounts of toxic substances are systematically or periodically introduced into the body, chronic poisoning occurs.

Signs of chronic poisoning are a violation of normal behavior, habits, as well as neuropsychological abnormalities: rapid fatigue or a feeling of constant fatigue, drowsiness or, conversely, insomnia, apathy, decreased attention, absent-mindedness, forgetfulness, severe mood swings.

In chronic poisoning, the same substances in different people can cause different damage to the kidneys, hematopoietic organs, nervous system, liver.

Similar signs are observed during radioactive contamination of the environment.

Doctors have established a direct connection between the increase in the number of people with allergies, bronchial asthma, cancer, and deteriorating environmental conditions in the region. It has been reliably established that industrial wastes such as chromium, nickel, beryllium, asbestos, and many pesticides are carcinogens, that is, they cause cancer. Even in the last century, cancer in children was almost unknown, but now it is becoming more and more common. As a result of pollution, new, previously unknown diseases appear. Their causes can be very difficult to establish.

Smoking causes enormous harm to human health. A smoker not only inhales harmful substances, but also pollutes the atmosphere and puts other people at risk. It has been established that people who are in the same room with a smoker inhale even more harmful substances than the smoker himself.

2.Biological pollution and human diseases.

In addition to chemical pollutants, there are also biological pollutants in the natural environment that cause various diseases in humans. These are pathogenic microorganisms, viruses, helminths, and protozoa. They can be found in the atmosphere, water, soil, and in the body of other living organisms, including the person himself.

The most dangerous pathogens are infectious diseases. They have different stability in the environment. Some are able to live outside the human body for only a few hours; being in the air, in water, on various objects, they quickly die. Others can live in the environment from a few days to several years. For others, the environment is their natural habitat. For others, other organisms, such as wild animals, provide a place for conservation and reproduction.

Often the source of infection is the soil, in which pathogens of tetanus, botulism, gas gangrene, and some fungal diseases constantly live. They can enter the human body if the skin is damaged, with unwashed food, or if hygiene rules are violated.

Pathogenic microorganisms can penetrate groundwater and cause infectious diseases in humans. Therefore, water from artesian wells, wells, and springs must be boiled before drinking.

Open water sources are especially polluted: rivers, lakes, ponds. There are numerous cases where contaminated water sources have caused epidemics of cholera, typhoid fever, and dysentery.

In airborne infection, infection occurs through the respiratory tract by inhaling air containing pathogens. Such diseases include influenza, whooping cough, mumps, diphtheria, measles and others. The causative agents of these diseases get into the air when sick people cough, sneeze, and even when talking.

A special group consists of infectious diseases transmitted through close contact with a patient or through the use of his things, for example, a towel, handkerchief, personal hygiene items and others that were used by the patient. These include sexually transmitted diseases (AIDS, syphilis, gonorrhea), trachoma, anthrax, and scab. Man, invading nature, often violates natural conditions existence of pathogenic organisms and becomes a victim of natural focal diseases.

People and domestic animals can become infected with natural focal diseases when entering the territory of a natural outbreak. Such diseases include plague, tularemia, typhus, tick-borne encephalitis, malaria, and sleeping sickness.

Other routes of infection are also possible. Thus, in some hot countries, as well as in a number of regions of our country, the infectious disease leptospirosis, or water fever, occurs. In our country, the causative agent of this disease lives in the organisms of common voles, which are widespread in meadows near rivers. The disease leptospirosis is seasonal, more common during heavy rains and hot months (July - August).

3. Nutrition and human health.

Each of us knows that food is necessary for the normal functioning of the body.

Throughout life, the human body continuously undergoes metabolism and energy. The source of the building materials and energy necessary for the body are nutrients coming from the external environment, mainly with food. If food does not enter the body, a person feels hungry. But hunger, unfortunately, will not tell you what nutrients and in what quantities a person needs. We often eat what is tasty, what can be prepared quickly, and do not really think about the usefulness and good quality of the products we eat.

Doctors say that nutritious nutrition is an important condition for maintaining the health and high performance of adults, and for children it is also a necessary condition for growth and development.

For normal growth, development and maintenance of vital functions, the body needs proteins, fats, carbohydrates, vitamins and mineral salts in the quantities it needs.

Poor nutrition is one of the main causes of cardiovascular diseases, diseases of the digestive system, and diseases associated with metabolic disorders.

Regular overeating, consumption of excess amounts of carbohydrates and fats are the cause of the development of metabolic diseases such as obesity and diabetes. They cause damage to the cardiovascular, respiratory, digestive and other systems, sharply reduce ability to work and resistance to diseases, reducing life expectancy by an average of 8-10 years.

The nutritional factor plays an important role not only in the prevention, but also in the treatment of many diseases. Specially organized nutrition, the so-called therapeutic nutrition, is a prerequisite for the treatment of many diseases, including metabolic and gastrointestinal diseases.

But now a new danger has appeared - chemical contamination of food. A new concept has also appeared - environmentally friendly products.

Obviously, each of us had to buy large, beautiful vegetables and fruits in stores, but, unfortunately, in most cases, after trying them, we found out that they were watery and did not meet our taste requirements. This situation occurs if crops are grown using large amounts of fertilizers and pesticides. Such agricultural products can not only have poor taste, but also be hazardous to health.

Nitrogen is an integral part of compounds vital for plants, as well as for animal organisms, such as proteins.

In plants, nitrogen comes from the soil, and then through food and feed crops it enters the bodies of animals and humans. Nowadays, agricultural crops almost completely obtain mineral nitrogen from chemical fertilizers, since some organic fertilizers are not enough for nitrogen-depleted soils. However, unlike organic fertilizers, chemical fertilizers do not freely release nutrients under natural conditions.

The negative effect of fertilizers and pesticides is especially pronounced when growing vegetables in closed ground. This happens because in greenhouses, harmful substances cannot evaporate freely and be carried away by air currents. After evaporation, they settle on plants.

Plants are capable of accumulating almost all harmful substances. This is why agricultural products grown near industrial enterprises and major highways are especially dangerous.

3 . Modern concept of health and healthy lifestyle

The modern era poses complex challenges to humanity arising from the characteristic features of social development. The most general and important trend of the present time is the acceleration of the pace of social development and associated global changes. The pace of social, economic, technological, and environmental changes in the world requires a person to quickly adapt to the conditions of life and activity.

Realization of intellectual, moral, spiritual, physical and reproductive potential is possible only in a healthy society. Health is the main value of life and ranks first among the vital needs of a person.

The World Health Organization (WHO) defines it this way: health is a state of complete physical, spiritual and social well-being, and not just the absence of disease and physical infirmity.

The science of forming, maintaining and strengthening human health is called valeology. The modern concept of health identifies its following components.

The physical component includes the level of growth and development of organs and systems of the body, as well as Current state their functioning. The basis of this process are morphological and functional transformations and reserves that ensure physical performance and adequate adaptation of a person to external conditions.

The psychological component is the state of the mental sphere, determined by motivational, emotional, mental and moral-spiritual components. Its basis is a state of emotional and cognitive comfort, which ensures mental performance and adequate human behavior.

The behavioral component is external manifestation human condition. It is expressed in the degree of adequacy of behavior and the ability to communicate. It is based on life position(active, passive, aggressive) and interpersonal relationships, which determine the adequacy of interaction with the external environment (biological and social), the ability to work effectively.

According to WHO, human health depends on many factors. Lifestyle has the greatest influence on health - this is a social category that includes quality, lifestyle and lifestyle. That is why the main direction of maintaining and strengthening health is a healthy lifestyle.

According to modern concepts, a healthy lifestyle is the forms and methods of daily human activity that strengthen and improve the adaptive (adaptive) and reserve capabilities of the body, which ensures the successful performance of social and professional functions.

Every lifestyle is based on principles, i.e. rules of behavior that an individual adheres to. There are biological and social principles, on the basis of which a healthy lifestyle is formed.

Biological principles - the lifestyle should be age-appropriate, energetically secure, strengthening, rhythmic, moderate.

Social principles - the way of life should be aesthetic, moral, strong-willed, limited.

In this regard, a healthy lifestyle is a rational organization of human life on the basis of key biological and social vital forms of behavior - behavioral factors.

The main ones:

Cultivation of positive emotions;

Optimal physical activity;

Balanced diet;

Healthy sleep;

Effective organization of work activities;

Sexual culture;

Healthy Aging;

Quitting bad habits (smoking, drinking alcohol, drugs).

Health culture is an important component of a person’s general culture; it determines the formation, preservation and strengthening of his health.

4. Ecopolisinstead of a metropolis

The formation of a mass movement in defense of nature has led to the increasing spread of that form of attitude that is quite accurately conveyed by the words “ecological consciousness.” We began to evaluate each result of human activity, its short-term and long-term goals, the means that we choose to achieve what we want, not separately, not in connection only with intra-professional experience, but in the context of the dynamic balance of natural processes. The seemingly new and even extravagant idea of ​​merging cities into a single metropolis, put forward by Doxiadis, immediately showed its retrograde character in a collision with the emerging environmental consciousness.

The idea of ​​Doxiadis had to be opposed to something concrete and at the same time quite universal. It is not surprising that the idea of ​​an ecological city—an ecopolis—emerged in several countries at the same time in the late 70s. Strictly speaking, the tempting-sounding word at first did not mean too much, except for the clearly expressed tendency in it - to see the city as an inhabited territory and at the same time the central core of a larger inhabited territory. However, this is not a little, since for the first time, urban planners, together with ecologists and the public, began to mean by the word “habitat” something more than a person’s development of a “niche” for his immediate needs.

To consider the city as an abode not only of people, but also of plants, animals, microorganisms, and the development of the city as the development of a vast community, was at first unusual and difficult. Naturally, in initial stage In developing the idea of ​​an ecopolis, biologists played the leading role. The dossier of voluntary and involuntary mistakes in urban planning and organization of urban services was rapidly growing.

A direct link has been established between the use of leaky garbage containers and open country dumps and a sharp increase in the number of crows and jackdaws, which, in turn, led to a decrease in the number of songbirds and squirrels. A direct link has been established between the use of salt to speed up the melting of snow on city streets and the deterioration of the health of urban greenery. It became clear that continuous asphalt paving of vast areas is unacceptable, which sharply worsens the balance of groundwater and the condition of the soil in adjacent parks and squares.

The list is long, but it is important that along with losses and mistakes, new opportunities were identified. Thus, it was possible to show and prove that heat wasted into the atmosphere by industrial enterprises and energy systems can be effectively used to create greenhouses and conservatories, that a city can be not only a consumer, but also a producer food products. It was established that the ban on the use of pesticides within the city (protecting human health) led to the fact that many valuable species of living beings, starting with bumblebees, took refuge in the city as a refuge, and therefore the city should be considered as a kind of nature reserve. We carefully calculated the ability of different plants to absorb harmful substances from the city air, which led to a significant change in ideas about the greenery the city needs...

This, however, was just the beginning. When it was realized that ecology is not so much a biological science as a social science based on biological knowledge, the idea of ​​an ecopolis began to quickly expand and become more complex in content. An ecopolis has come to be understood as a habitat for humans and other living beings, where the spiritual potential of the human community can be revealed to its fullest. This meant, first of all, that in an urban environment we were able to see a real school - not in a figurative, but in a literal sense. Being born and growing up in a city, a person learns the world order, understanding nature and society, not only and not even so much in school lessons, but in the process of everyday behavior.

The monotony and mechanical appearance of the city causes an acute hunger of the psyche for a variety of impressions: psychologists call it sensory starvation and rightly interpret it as a serious illness. On the contrary, the saturation of visual information, its artistic coherence, greatly expands the abilities of the imagination, and therefore the ability to generally perceive meaningful information, and generally learn anything. The natural complex of the city is the main type of natural environment with which it has everyday communication each of us. This circumstance does not mean that the Sunday desire to “out of town” is unnecessary or meaningless (by the way, it increasingly leads to environmental overload in suburban areas, the flora and fauna of which are becoming scarce under the pressure of millions of feet). However, the city itself should give a person, especially a growing person, an accessible fullness of direct communication with nature. Consequently, giant multi-storey residential buildings, which for their time served as a way out of the housing crisis, cannot be considered by us as a promising type of housing.

The stability of the dimensions of the human body also means the stability of the normal correlation of a person with the dimensions of the environment, that is, the fundamental constancy of scale. This means that the revival of the dimensions of its blocks, streets and squares formed by the history of the city is by no means an artistic whim, but a real necessity determined by the human psyche. Of course, a person is flexible and resilient, he is able to withstand long-term disruption of his natural conditions. However, any such violation, if it lasts long enough, represents constant stress, the weakening and ultimately removal of which acts as a social necessity.

The city exists in a natural context, transformed by human economic activity, and therefore the development of an ecopolis certainly means the desire to transfer the city to “waste-free technology”. The task is clear - to minimize, and ideally eliminate, any harmful effects city ​​to its surroundings. Previously, it seemed acceptable to divert or transport its solid, liquid and gaseous waste away from the city. Over time, it became clear that there is no such distance that would guarantee the city itself from the “boomerang” effect, not to mention the inadmissibility of “exporting” harmful substances into the natural environment. Atmospheric flows and underground waters do not respect boundaries: you can take water three dozen kilometers from a suburban park and after a few years you will be convinced that there is not enough water for its fountains; you can lay reclamation canals far from the city and after a short period of time find that the city basements begin to fill with water or, on the contrary, the trees of the city park begin to dry out.

Everyone professionally concerned with solving the city's problems was bombarded with such an avalanche of new information that it was difficult not to get confused. Moreover, in order to fully implement the recommendations of socio-ecologists, it is not so much gigantic additional funds that are needed, but enormous additional labor - both intellectual and physical.

It turned out that without the direct participation of thousands and thousands of citizens in the process of habitation and reconstruction of the city on its way to an ecopolis, it is in principle impossible to achieve the goal. But people agree to voluntarily give up their energy and time only when the purpose and meaning of the work is clear to them, when the purpose and meaning become their own, internal for them. It turned out naturally that the movement of citizens in defense of their right to participate in making urban planning decisions meets with an increasingly realized need of city authorities and the experts they hire. The dialogue between designers, scientists, administrators and those who were recently called consumers in a rather offensive manner, thereby acquires the character of an objective necessity.

The path from the moment when a few enthusiasts are aware of the strategic task to the time when it is recognized by an active minority, and then by the majority of citizens, is not easy and long. However, there is no alternative. To implement the idea of ​​an ecopolis in every city, large and small, we need not so much new means as new thinking. Sermons, lectures, and punishments will not help the matter - after all, we are talking about making ecopolis consciousness a natural moral norm. We are talking about getting used to the internal prohibition on barbaric action in relation to an ancient monument, or a living blade of grass, an animal or an insect, not because it threatens punishment or censure, but because it is impossible to think otherwise. We are talking about getting used to the internal need to participate in the formation of an ecopolis - not only by wielding a shovel or pruning shears, but also by researching, comprehending, discussing projects, making constructive proposals at all levels of the urban environment.

5 . Better waysresearch on human health

The current trends in assessing the current state of human health indicate ongoing problems in the formation of health, which can lead to a deterioration in the quality of the population, limiting its participation in creative activities to improve the socio-economic situation in the country. It is obvious that the pressing problems of public health and science cannot be solved through departmental efforts alone (the Russian Ministry of Health, the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences), since they are complex, interdepartmental and multifactorial. health mortality ecopolis

Among the most pressing problems requiring the adoption of active measures, it should be noted the elimination of negative trends in demographic processes, the modernization of the management system, planning and financing of the industry, the development of flexibility of the medical care infrastructure and the functioning of its main links, the development of mechanisms for state regulation of more diverse health care activities, medical industry, development of a system of informed consent of large groups of the population, families and every citizen for support and cooperation in the field of protecting and promoting the health of the population of Russia.

Conclusion

Human health synthesizes physical, spiritual and social health, which manifests itself in maintaining a balanced, balanced relationship with the environment, and therefore harmonized interaction between man and nature.

Scientists say that a person must come to harmony with the environment. Of course, then the main problem will be to understand to what extent the natural influence is directed specifically at us, and only after that can we look for some way out of the current crisis. The collective mind of humanity can become a harmonizer of socio-natural evolution. The key problem for all areas of health care is the formation of a culture of health, increasing the prestige of health, self-awareness of the value of health as a factor of vitality and active longevity; social and economic motive to preserve and improve health. Many diseases can be easily prevented in advance, and this does not require large expenses. But treatment of the final stages of diseases is expensive, that is, all preventive and health-saving measures are always beneficial. If a person begins to invest in health preservation systems earlier, then in general he spends significantly less money and time on his health. The highest priority is to increase the level of psychophysical health, maintain optimal performance, professionalism of workers, the quality of life of the population and the individual’s achievement of a genetically determined life expectancy, which ultimately ensures the need for a healthier lifestyle.

Bibliography

1. Reimers N. F. Protection of nature and the human environment. M.: Education, 1992. 320 p.

2. Bannikov A. G., Vakulin A. A., Rustamov A. K. Fundamentals of ecology and environmental protection. M. Kolos, 1996.

3. Balsevich V.K., Lubysheva L.I. Values ​​of physical culture in a healthy lifestyle // theory and practice of physical culture. 1994, no. 4.

4. Analytical review (2003-2008). //www.minzdravsoc

5. Bank of abstracts. - Access mode: http://www.allbest.ru/

6. “Run yourself from diseases.” Maryasis V.V. - Moscow, 1992

Posted on Allbest.ru

...

Similar documents

The essence of health, the influence of social and natural conditions on it. Classification of health risk factors. Current aspects of developing a healthy lifestyle. Models and program for improving population health. Prevention of dental diseases.

course work, added 01/12/2014


Essence, features and criteria of normal health. A system of main indicators of the state of the human body: its structure, structure, functions. Main types of approaches to the category of health. Health groups and categories of persons related to them.

test, added 01/24/2010


The value essence of human health. The dependence of health on the social environment surrounding a person. Social meaning of good health. Health as an individual and social value. Social aspects of maintaining, strengthening and preserving health.

abstract, added 04/30/2014


Public health and healthcare as a science about the patterns of public health and ways to protect and improve it. The influence of public health on patterns of population development. Goals to improve the level of health of each person.

presentation, added 04/04/2014


Factors that determine human health. Estimates of reduced life expectancy due to various reasons. The health status of men in different age periods. Main directions and recommendations for maintaining public health.

abstract, added 06/10/2013


The global nature of the problem of protecting public health from epidemics and new diseases. Study of geography and causes of diseases using nosogeography. Identification of microzones by types of diseases and their characteristics. The global threat of AIDS (HIV) and its factors. Longevity.

abstract, added 07/15/2008


Study of the level, structure and factors of incidence of peptic ulcer disease in adolescents. Relative values. Medical, demographic and morbidity indicators of the population. Standardization method. Using averages to assess public health.

laboratory work, added 03/03/2009


Criteria used to evaluate the health of a specific group of people or the population as a whole. Factors potentially hazardous to human health and contributing to the occurrence of diseases. The main sources of information on the morbidity of the population.

presentation, added 03/20/2015


The problem of maintaining the health of the working population. Hygienic studies of working conditions and their assessment. Modern aspects of working conditions and health status of workers in the mining industry. Assessment of reproductive health of miners.

course work, added 02/12/2013


Analysis of the structure of general morbidity based on visits to the clinic by children, adolescents and adults, assessment of the health status of the city population. Study of the health of children in the first year of life. Study of population structure, demographic indicators.

GYMNASIUM No. 1563

EASTERN DISTRICT DEPARTMENT

(VAO)

ABSTRACT

on economic and social geography of the world

on the topic: “Global problems of human health”

Completed by: student of grade 10 “B”

Kandratyeva Anastasia

Teacher: Voronina Svetlana Vyacheslavovna

Moscow

2004

1. Preface. Concept of global

problems - page 1

2. What is Medical Geography - page 3

3. Development of medical geography - p.5

4. Medical geography in the twentieth century - p.7

5. Plague - p.11

6. Smallpox - p.14

7. Smallpox against AIDS - p.15

8. AIDS - p.15

9. Cholera - p.18

10. Schizophrenia - page 19

11. Diseases that have appeared

in our century - p.22

12. Conclusion - page 51

13. References - p.53

Global problems of human health.

1.Preface. The concept of global problems.

Global problems are problems that cover the whole world, all of humanity, pose a threat to its present and future and require united efforts and joint actions of all states and peoples to be solved.

There are various classifications of global problems. But usually among them are:

1. Problems of the most “universal” nature,

2. Problems of a natural and economic nature,

3. Problems social nature,

4. Problems of a mixed nature.

There are also “older” and “newer” global problems. Their priority may also change over time. So, at the end of the 20th century. Environmental and demographic problems came to the fore, while the problem of preventing a third world war became less pressing.

Global problems are divided into:

1. environmental problem;

2. demographic problem;

3. the problem of peace and disarmament, prevention of nuclear war;

4. food problem - how to provide food to the growing population of the Earth?

5. energy and raw materials problems: causes and solutions;

6. human health problems: a global problem;

7. the problem of using the World Ocean.

As we see, there are many global problems, but I would like to dwell on the Global Problem of Human Health. I'm in a medical class and that's why I chose this topic. As will be discussed below, infectious diseases that claimed thousands of lives in ancient times unfortunately continue to occur today, although medicine has stepped forward since then thanks to scientific progress and the great discoveries of medical scientists, biologists, and ecologists. I hope that as a future doctor, and perhaps an infectious disease specialist, I will be able to take part in the development of new methods for treating diseases.

Recently, in world practice, when assessing the quality of life of people, the state of their health comes first. And this is not accidental: after all, it is precisely this that serves as the basis for the full life and activity of every person, and society as a whole.

In the second half of the 20th century. Great strides have been made in the fight against many diseases - plague, cholera, smallpox, yellow fever, polio, and other diseases.

Many diseases continue to threaten people's lives, often becoming truly global. Among them are cardiovascular diseases, from which 15 million people die every year in the world, malignant tumors, sexually transmitted diseases, drug addiction, and malaria. AIDS poses an even greater threat to all humanity.

When considering this problem, we must keep in mind that when assessing a person’s health, we cannot limit ourselves only to his physiological health. This concept also includes moral (spiritual) and mental health, with which the situation is also unfavorable, including in Russia. That is why human health continues to be one of the priority global problems.

People's health largely depends on natural factors, on the level of development of society, scientific and technological achievements, living and working conditions, the state of the environment, the development of the healthcare system, etc. All these factors are closely interrelated and together either promote health or cause certain diseases.

Medical geography studies natural conditions in order to identify the natural influences of a complex of these conditions on human health. In this case, socio-economic factors must be taken into account.

The development of medical geography as a science spans millennia; it depended on the development of many other sciences, primarily on geography and medicine, as well as on physics, chemistry, biology, etc. Each new discovery and achievement in these areas of knowledge contributed to the development of medical geography. Scientists from many countries around the world have contributed to determining the goals and objectives of medical geography and its content. However, many issues of this science remain controversial and require further study.

2. What is Medical Geography?

You know that geography is a complex science that represents a system of natural and social knowledge that reveals the relationships between the components of natural phenomena, between man and his environment. You are also familiar with the word “medicine” (from the Latin medicina) - a system of knowledge and practical activities aimed at preserving and strengthening human health, prolonging his life, recognizing, preventing and treating diseases.

Why are two concepts – “geography” and “medicine” – placed side by side?

Russian physiologist I.M. Sechenov wrote: “An organism without an external environment that supports its existence is impossible, therefore the scientific definition of an organism must also include the environment that influences it.” The human body is a complex system. On the one hand, as a biological being, a person is influenced by various natural physical, chemical and biological factors of his environment. On the other hand, the specifics of his relationship with the environment are determined by social factors, since man is also a social being.

The human habitat, or environment, is usually understood as a system of interconnected natural and anthropogenic objects and phenomena among which human life and activity takes place. In other words, this concept includes natural, social, as well as man-made environmental factors, the combination and interrelation of which create the necessary prerequisites for his life and activity.

It has long been noted that certain human diseases occur in certain parts of the globe and arise after contact with certain types of plants and animals living in specific natural conditions. The knowledge accumulated in this area has made it possible to identify an independent branch of medicine - geographic pathology (pathology (from the Greek pathos - suffering, illness) - the science of diseases, painful conditions of the body. Geographic pathology - private pathology - studies the spread of certain diseases in different areas globe)).

What is medical geography?

Medical geography is a branch of science that studies the natural conditions of an area in order to understand the patterns of influence of a set of conditions on people’s health, and also takes into account the influence of socio-economic factors.

This definition was formulated by A.A. Shoshin in the early 60s. The complex of natural conditions refers to certain natural systems: landscapes, physical-geographical areas, natural zones, which represent the interconnection of natural components - relief, climate, soils, waters, vegetation, animals.

Socio-economic factors include the characteristics of people’s lives and activities, industry, agriculture, transport and communications, and the non-productive sphere.

The first ideas about the influence of natural and socio-economic factors on human health began to form in ancient times, as evidenced by archaeological data, elements of medical activity reflected in language, folk epic, as well as in works of art mentioning various painful conditions and medical care with them, preserved ancient writings (treatises). With the development of human society - the complication of the economy, the emergence of new tools, their improvement - new diseases arose and the need to provide appropriate medical care.

Thus, with the development of hunting, injuries in collisions with wild animals have become more frequent; primitive care for injuries was improved - treatment of wounds, fractures, dislocations. The need for trauma care has also increased due to the wars between clans and tribes during the formation of human society.

The observation skills of primitive people allowed them to discover special action on the body of some plants (analgesic, stimulant, laxative, diaphoretic, sleeping pill, etc.), which made it possible to use them to alleviate painful conditions.

Since ancient times, the sun, water, in particular mineral water, as well as physical exercise, rubbing (massage), etc. have been used among medicinal remedies.

The medical activities of primitive man reflected man's helplessness before the forces of nature and his lack of understanding of the world around him. In his view, nature is inhabited by diverse spirits and supernatural beings. All natural phenomena and objects - wind, thunder, lightning, frost, rivers, forests, mountains, etc. had spirits corresponding to them. Therefore, ancient medicine was called demonology. (demonology is the doctrine of evil spirits, historically dating back to the primitive belief in spirits).

Among ancient peoples, the names of diseases, for example the ancient Russian ones - fever, fever, gnawing and others, and the beliefs and rituals associated with them reflected ideas about the disease as a special creature that had penetrated into the body. Even the very names of these harmful creatures often conveyed various symptoms diseases, for example, various fevers in ancient Russian folk medicine had the names Lomeya, Pukhteya, Korcheya, Zhelteya, Ogneya, Shaking.

The study of the culture of primitive society shows that demonological ideas were not the only ones for understanding illness and health. Along with them, and even before they arose and developed, there were techniques based on the observation of objects and natural phenomena, on the accumulation of everyday practical experience of ancient people.

3. Development of medical geography in Russia.

The beginning of the formation of domestic medical geography dates back to the first quarter of the 13th century, when, by decree of Peter 1, foreign doctors in the Russian service were required to collect and record information about the properties of mineral waters, medicinal plants, and poisonous animals. Medical-geographical information is contained in the works of the first Russian geographers and scientists, primarily M.V. Lomonosov, who in his works in 1753 points out the importance of weather for health.

In 1762, Jacob Monzei wrote about the need to engage in natural scientific observations, exploring the location, weather, and customs of local residents, which can affect health.

An outstanding figure in the national healthcare and military medical service, Pavel Zakharovich Kondoidi, while participating in numerous military campaigns, noticed the connection between the health status of soldiers and the natural conditions of the territory where troops were stationed or were being fought. fighting. The first program for medical-geographical description of areas in Russia and abroad was the “Instructions for studying the causes of diseases in Kizlyar”, compiled by P.Z. Kondoidi based on an analysis of the reasons for the high incidence of the soldiers of the Kizlyar fortress who guarded the trade routes from Russia to Persia. The first medical faculty of Moscow University was opened in 1764 and in the 18th century managed to train only a few dozen doctors. Among the subjects they were taught were chemistry and balneology, mineralogy and botany. As evidenced by the archival developments of medical historians, graduates of the Faculty of Medicine sent to the Medical College a large number of scientific essays with detailed medical-geographical information that was of great practical importance for combating epidemics and for improving the conditions of accommodation and living conditions of troops. A number of such works are devoted to issues of nosogeography, i.e. spread of diseases.

For the first time (1864) in Russian literature, the content and tasks of medical geography were considered by the chief physician of the Kutaisi military hospital N.I. Toropov. In his work “The experience of medical geography of the Caucasus regarding intermittent fevers” he wrote: “In order to be able to prevent any disease, you must, first of all, know why and where it happens, i.e. know the reasons for its development in the body and the places of its distribution on Earth. The first question is answered objectively by the study of nature itself, and the second by medical geography.”

At the beginning of the 19th century, medical geography in Russia reached its peak. In the first decades, in connection with the wars in which Russia participated, issues of military medical geography were especially widely developed. The importance attached to medical geography is evidenced by the fact that this discipline was taught at a number of Russian universities, in particular at the Medical-Surgical Academy in St. Petersburg.

The leading figures of Russian medicine (M.L. Mudrov, S.P. Botkin, N.I. Pirogov, I.M. Sechenov) paid great attention to the use of climatic factors for medicinal purposes. So, Nikolai Ivanovich Pirogov(1810-1881), an outstanding Russian surgeon, in 1847 described the influence of the Caucasus climate on the health of military personnel and gave a detailed description of the features of treatment and evacuation of patients in mountain climates.

In 1893, the book of the outstanding Russian climatologist and geographer Alexander Ivanovich Voeikov “Study of climates for the purposes of treatment and hygiene” was published, in which the author develops the idea of ​​climatic treatment, and also considers the influence of meteorological factors (primarily changes in air masses, the passage of atmospheric fronts) on the body person.

By the end of the 19th century, in connection with the development of microbiology, epidemiology, sanitary statistics and hygiene, the nature of medical geographical research changed significantly. There is growing interest in the study of socio-economic conditions, their impact on health status, morbidity and mortality, and the organization of healthcare. Thus, in 1870, in the preface to the first volume of the “Medical Topographical Collection”, environmental and sanitary-hygienic issues were included in the definition of the content of medical geography: “To present a picture of the state of nature and human society in a given area, to show the interaction between them, the results of reasonable human treatment with nature, the benefits that he can derive from it, and how he can protect himself from its destructive actions... as well as living conditions that change the nature of a given area to the detriment of its inhabitants..."

During this period of development of medical geography, scientists began to widely use not only descriptive, as was the case in the past, but also statistical, cartographic and historical methods research.

4. Medical geography in XX century.

At the beginning of the twentieth century. The development of medical geography in Russia has stopped. One of the reasons for this is the differentiation of sciences that began at that time. Interest in in-depth penetration into certain areas of knowledge has increased. Medical geography with its general integrated approaches began to lose its importance. This state of science persisted until about the 1920s.

At this time, domestic medical geography is understood by a number of authors as a branch of general geography that studies the geographic distribution of diseases, i.e. medical geography was reduced to nosogeography. This point of view persisted for quite a long time, and was shared by Daniil Kirillovich Zabolotny(1866-1929) – one of the founders of Russian epidemiology.

D.K. Zabolotny graduated from the natural sciences department of the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics of Novosibirsk University and the Faculty of Medicine of Kyiv University. He proved through experiments on himself that administering cholera vaccine by mouth protects against cholera diseases. He devoted many years to the study of plague and took part in the creation of the first anti-plague laboratories. He experimentally proved the identity of the origin of bubonic and pneumonic plague and the therapeutic effect of anti-plague serum. Zabolotny is the creator of the doctrine of the natural focality of plague. In St. Petersburg, he organized the first department of bacteriology in Russia; in Odessa - the world's first department of epidemiology; in Kyiv - Institute of Epidemiology and Microbiology.

Zabolotny considered medical geography a branch of medicine. In his article “Medical Geography (nosogeography)” (1929), he wrote: “Medical geography (nosogeography) is a branch of medicine that studies the spread of various diseases, mostly contagious, on the globe. Its tasks include identifying the areas most affected by this form of the disease, as well as studying external factors influencing changes in the distribution of diseases.”

During the Great Patriotic War the entire scientific potential of medicine was mobilized to serve the army. Since 1943 Research began on military medical geography. During this time, a huge amount of observations and active data on the influence of external conditions on the human body. Healthcare required comprehensive medical-geographical research when developing new territories, which revived interest in medical geography.

In the 50s, the collection of extensive material on regional pathology and the study of endemic foci of certain diseases began, and a comprehensive expeditionary study of previously unexplored and economically undeveloped territories was launched, especially in Siberia and the Far East. Many of these expeditions were organized and carried out under the leadership and personal participation of the academician of medicine Evgeniy Nikanorovich Pavlovsky.

The biography of E.N. Pavlovsky is a page in the development of many sciences, including medical geography. E.N. Pavlovsky is the author of 800 scientific papers, the creator of the doctrine of the natural focality of diseases, which has received wide world fame and recognition. He discovered the most significant patterns underlying natural focal diseases, proposed a genetic classification according to their origin, age, specificity of pathogens, etc., and formulated the basic principles of landscape epidemiology. Establishing the connection between natural foci of diseases and certain geographical landscapes allows us to determine in advance the likelihood of encountering a particular infection and carry out the necessary preventive measures in advance.

Under his leadership and with his personal participation, 170 complex expeditions were carried out to study tick-borne relapsing fever, fevers, tularemia, etc. Many carriers of pathogens of a number of diseases were studied in detail.

E.N. Pavlovsky and his students carried out numerous studies on the fauna, biology and ecology of various groups of the animal world.

A remarkable scientist, professor made a great contribution to the development of domestic medical geography Alexey Alekseevich Shoshin, who formulated the definition of medical geography. Great merit to A.A. Gorin are the main directions he identified scientific research in the field of medical geography, which can be formulated as follows:

medical-geographical assessment of individual elements of nature, individual natural complexes and economic conditions affecting human health;

development of medical and geographical forecasts for previously inhabited areas that are subject to future economic development, as well as those territories within which nature is most intensively transformed as a result of human economic activity;

compilation of medical and geographical maps reflecting the positive and negative influence of the habitat and socio-economic conditions on people’s health;

studying the patterns of geography of individual diseases and drawing up maps of their distribution.

New theoretical principles of a fundamental nature were important for the development of medical geography. This is, first of all, the doctrine of the natural focality of diseases and landscape epidemiology, the doctrine of biogeocenoses, the theory of landscape science, complex climatology, regional pathology and balneology.

In the 80s, the main directions of medical-geographical research remained a priority. In these years, medical-geographical forecasting has become qualitatively new, on the basis of which programs for the development of healthcare and the prevention of diseases caused by environmental factors are drawn up. Still Among the problems that occupy medical geographers, an important place is given to the issues of human adaptation to extreme conditions, nosogeography, and epidemiology.

During this period, a great contribution to the development of medical-geographical research was made by E.N. Pavlovsky’s student V.Ya. Podolyan.

Recognition of the merits of medical geographers was the award of the State Prize to a large group of domestic scientists, whose works contributed to the formation and development of medical geography in our country. Among those awarded this high award are A.A. Shoshin and V.Ya. Podolyan, N.K. Sokolov, E.L. Rayakh and many others.

The 20th century ended. unusual - for the first time in observable History, global changes have occurred in the geographical (natural and social) conditions of life on Earth, the consequences of which are not always predictable and a catastrophe cannot be ruled out if destructive phenomena continue to increase in the new century. At the same time, in different regions already now, during the lifetime of only one or two generations of people, the landscapes and the entire historically formed geographical environment of people’s lives have fundamentally changed due to local and global reasons, because of which people are now usually in a state of chronic maladaptation and for all what happens they pay with their health and future. Over the past century, global scientific, technical and social development has been characterized by the secrecy of many negative processes occurring in nature, society and people's health. True geographical knowledge about the essence of changes on the face of the Earth, countries, regions remained for the most part unclaimed by the world community. Progressive scientific developments were not always used. In particular, the long-term attempt of the Geographical Society of the USSR to create a systemic Medical-geographical cadastre of the country, with subsystems of republics and regions, did not materialize. By the beginning of the 21st century. In the world, many problems of maintaining health have taken root for each person personally and for all nations. To resolve them, we need an objective systemic analysis of what happened in the last century and a transition to more civilized ways of human development. This progressive solution can only be optimal with the active participation of geography and medicine. Doctors are the first to notice and evaluate changes in nature and society based on the most reliable indicator - the state of human health. A number of technogenic and social processes cause a change in the quality of the geographic environment: its saturation with new, often unusual for humans, environmental risk factors. Socio-economic (technological, radiation, toxic, electromagnetic, etc.), environmental, spiritual, moral, psychological, informational and other risk factors for diseases for all groups of the population are increasing uncontrollably. Therefore, environmental and other non-infectious pathologies of the main systems of the human body are increasing. Conditions arise for the return of epidemic infectious pathologies, such as plague, smallpox, and the like.

5. Plague.

The plague has been known since ancient times. The great epidemics of ancient history, known as the “plague of Thucys” (430-425 BC), the “plague of Antonian or Galen” (165-168 AD) and the “plague of Cyprian” (251-266 BC). AD), should be classified as epidemics of “other origins (typhoid diseases, diphtheria, smallpox and other epidemic diseases with significant mortality)” and only the “plague of Justinian” (531-580 AD) was truly real epidemic of bubonic plague. Having appeared in Constantinople, this epidemic continued there for several years in the form of isolated cases in a mild form, but at times it gave rise to large outbreaks. In 542 A large plague epidemic began in Egypt, spreading along the northern coast of Africa and in western Asia (Syria, Arabia, Persia, Asia Minor). In the spring of the following year, the plague epidemic spread to Constantinople, quickly became devastating and lasted for more than 4 months. The flight of residents only contributed to the spread of infection. In 543 outbreaks of plague appeared in Italy, then in Galia and along the left bank of the Rhine, and in 558 again in Constantinople. Periodic outbreaks of plague continued in southern and central Europe and the Byzantine Empire for many more years.

Already at that time, all now known forms of plague were registered, including fulminant ones, in which death occurred in the midst of full health. It was surprising that in cities where the plague raged, entire neighborhoods or individual houses were spared, which was repeatedly confirmed later. Facts such as the prevalence of repeated diseases and the relatively rarer cases of infection of service personnel did not escape attention.

Individual outbreaks of plague were observed in various places in Europe in the 7th-9th centuries. The epidemics in IX were particularly severe. But in the 14th century, the Black Death plague reached a spread and strength unprecedented in history. The epidemic began in 1347. and lasted almost 60 years. Not a single state was spared, not even Greenland. During the years of the second pandemic, more than 25 million people died in Europe, i.e. approximately a quarter of the total population.

The pandemic of the 14th century provided enormous material for the study of the plague, its symptoms and methods of spread. This time also included the recognition of the contagious origin of the plague and the appearance of the first quarantines in some Italian cities.

It is difficult to say where the “Black Death” came from, but a number of authors indicate Central Asia among such regions. It was from there that three trade routes went to Europe: one to the Caspian Sea, the second to the Black Sea, the third to the Mediterranean (via Arabia and Egypt). Therefore, it is not surprising that in 1351-1353. the plague came to us too. It should be noted, however, that this was not the first epidemic in Russia. Back in the 11th century. in Kyiv there was a “pestilence among people.” How terrible the devastation caused by the plague in Russia in 1387 was can be judged at least from Smolensk, where after the outbreak of the plague only 5 people remained, who left the city and closed the city filled with corpses.

The plague continued to be recorded in Russia in the 19th century. For example, she visited Odessa 5 times.

In 1894 A. Iversen discovered the causative agent of the plague, and V.M. Khavkin in 1896 proposed a killed plague vaccine, which is still used in India.

Plague is an acute natural focal infectious disease caused by the plague bacillus. Refers to particularly dangerous infections. There are a number of natural foci around the globe where plague is constantly found in a small percentage of the rodents living there. Epidemics of plague among people were often caused by the migration of rats infected in natural foci. From rodents to humans, microbes are transmitted through fleas, which, in the event of mass death of animals, change their host. In addition, a possible route of infection is when hunters process the skins of killed infected animals. Fundamentally different is infection from person to person, carried out by airborne droplets.

The causative agent of plague is resistant to low temperatures, preserves well in sputum, but at a temperature of +55 degrees it dies within 10-15 minutes, and when boiled - almost instantly. Enters the body through the skin, mucous membranes of the respiratory tract, digestive tract, and conjunctiva. When a person is bitten by fleas infected with plague bacteria, a swelling of the skin may form at the site of the bite. The process then spreads through the lymphatic vessels to the lymph nodes, which leads to their sharp increase, merger and formation of a conglomerate (bubonic form). The bubonic form of plague is characterized by the appearance of sharply painful conglomerates, most often in the inguinal lymph nodes on one side. The incubation period is 2-6 days. At the same time, an increase in other groups of lymph nodes appears - secondary buboes. The severity of the patients' condition gradually increases by the 4-5th day, the temperature may be elevated, sometimes a high fever immediately appears, but at first the condition of the patients often remains generally satisfactory. This explains the fact that a person sick with bubonic plague can fly from one part of the world to another, considering himself healthy. However, at any time, the bubonic form of plague can turn into a secondary septic or secondary pneumonic form. Septic and pneumonic forms of plague occur like any severe sepsis.

The most important role in diagnosis in modern conditions is played by epidemiological anamnesis. The arrival from zones endemic for plague (Vietnam, Burma, Bolivia, Turkmenistan, Karakalpak Republic), or from anti-plague stations of a patient with the signs of the bubonic form described above or with signs of the most severe - with hemorrhages and bloody sputum - pneumonia with severe lymphadenopathy, is the first thing for a doctor contact is a sufficiently serious argument for taking all measures to localize the suspected plague and accurately diagnose it. It should be especially emphasized that in the conditions of modern drug prevention, the likelihood of illness among personnel who have been in contact with a coughing plague patient for some time is very small. Currently, there are no cases of primary pneumonic plague among medical personnel. An accurate diagnosis must be made using bacteriological studies. The material for them is the punctate of a suppurating lymph node, sputum, the patient’s blood, discharge from fistulas and ulcers.

If plague is suspected, the patient should be immediately hospitalized in an infectious diseases hospital. If possible, medical personnel wear an anti-plague suit; if not, then gauze masks, scarves, and shoe covers. All personnel immediately receive preventive treatment antibiotics, which continues throughout the days he spends in the isolation ward. Plague is treated with antibiotics.

Under modern therapy, mortality in the bubonic form does not exceed 5-10%, but in other forms the recovery rate is quite high if treatment is started early.

Photos - see attached.

6. Smallpox.

Ancient Indian and Chinese manuscripts bring to us descriptions of terrible epidemics of black smallpox. The sick person developed a fever, headache, general weakness, and after 3-4 days the whole body became covered with fluid-filled blisters (pockmarks). The disease lasted about two weeks, and up to 40% of patients died. Children were the most seriously ill. Those who were ill developed scars at the site of the pockmarks. Sometimes pockmarks appeared in front of the eyes, which led to blindness.

Smallpox came to Europe later than to the East - in the Middle Ages. When it first entered new countries, this disease raged with particular force. In Iceland in 1707 Smallpox killed more than two-thirds of the population.

In 1796 Jenner, with his method of smallpox inoculation (vaccination), marked the beginning of the fight against this disease.

Smallpox is a natural acute viral disease related to quarantine infections. Characterized by fever, general intoxication and pustular rash. The causative agent belongs to the smallpox group of viruses and is well preserved when dried. The virus enters the body through the mucous membranes of the upper respiratory tract.

The incubation period lasts 5-15 days. The disease begins acutely. With chills, body temperature rises. Patients are concerned about weakness, headache, pain in the lower back, sacrum, and less commonly, nausea, vomiting, and abdominal pain. The skin of the face, neck and chest is hyperemic, the vessels of the sclera are injected. A “harbinger” rash that quickly disappears may appear. On the 4th day of illness, the body temperature decreases, the patient’s well-being improves somewhat, and at the same time, an exanthema characteristic of smallpox appears. The elements of the rash are spots that turn into papules, then into vesicles and by the 7-8th day of illness into pustules. From the 14th day of illness, the pustules turn into crusts, after which they fall off, leaving scars. In vaccinated people, smallpox is mild, sometimes reminiscent of chicken pox.

Chickenpox is an acute viral disease with airborne transmission, occurring mainly in childhood and characterized by a febrile state, papulovesicular rash, and a benign course. The causative agent of chickenpox belongs to the herpes group of viruses and is unstable in the external environment. Penetrates into the body through the mucous membranes of the upper respiratory tract. After the incubation period, a characteristic rash appears on the body. The incubation period lasts an average of 14 days.

In 1967 The World Health Organization (WHO) has launched a campaign to eradicate smallpox worldwide. For 1967 More than 2 million people have suffered from smallpox worldwide. Human. In 1971 The last case of smallpox in America was reported in 1976. - in Asia, in 1977 - in Africa. Three years later, in 1980, WHO announced that smallpox had been completely eradicated throughout the world. Now not a single person on the planet suffers from this disease, and the smallpox pathogen continues to live in only three laboratories (in the USA, Russia, South Africa).

Russian scientists from Novosibirsk scientific center"Vector" has developed a new, modified version of the smallpox vaccine. This new vaccine option can protect people against both smallpox and hepatitis B at the same time.

7. Smallpox against AIDS.

Recent research by American scientists suggests that the smallpox vaccine may help protect people from the AIDS virus. A team of researchers from George Mason University in Virginia found in the laboratory that elements of the blood of people vaccinated against smallpox were four times less susceptible to infection by the AIDS virus.

Many researchers have suggested a connection between immunity against smallpox and against the AIDS virus. Some researchers have shown that older people who were vaccinated against smallpox were less likely to contract AIDS.

43 million people worldwide have AIDS and 28 million have died from it. Work on an AIDS vaccine has so far been unsuccessful.

Smallpox was eradicated in 1979. Hundreds of millions of people have been vaccinated against the virus. Many countries have now resumed vaccinations due to fears that the deadly virus could now be used as a biological weapon.

Photos - see attached

8. AIDS.

What is a virus?

A virus is a tiny microorganism that can only be seen under a very powerful microscope.

Viruses live inside living cells that make up all the tissues of the human body. There are billions of such cells in our body. They are grouped and perform different functions.

The outer side of the cell is called the membrane. It is like the skin of a cell that protects it; inside the cell there is liquid and a nucleus. The core plays a very important role. This is a kind of mini-computer that programs and controls the life of the cell.

When a virus enters the human body, it finds a cell that allows it in and changes the program of the cellular “computer” in it. Now, instead of functioning normally and fulfilling its duties, the cell begins to produce viruses. Such viruses can cause various diseases: influenza, measles, chickenpox. In this case, a person becomes ill for a while, but recovers quickly thanks to the immune system, which immediately fights the virus and defeats it.

The human immunodeficiency virus is different from other viruses and represents great danger precisely because it attacks the cells that are supposed to fight the virus.

How is HIV transmitted?

Fortunately, the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is transmitted from person to person only under certain conditions and much less frequently than other diseases such as influenza and chicken pox.

HIV lives in blood cells and can pass from one person to another if blood contaminated with HIV enters the blood of a healthy person. To avoid becoming infected through someone else's blood, it is enough to take basic precautions where you have to deal with blood. For example, make sure that there are no cuts or abrasions on the body. Then, even if the patient’s blood accidentally gets on the skin, it will not be able to penetrate the body.

So how is this unfortunate virus transmitted? Here are some real life examples. Jenny's father, Tony, was diagnosed with the HIV virus. During the operation in the hospital he had to receive a blood transfusion. As it turned out, the blood injected into him already contained the virus. Having discovered that the virus could be transmitted in this way, doctors developed a number of measures to prevent the possibility of its presence in donated blood. Now transmission of the virus through blood transfusion is almost impossible.

Needles for injections should only be disposable. If they are used repeatedly, the blood of an HIV-infected person can enter the blood of a healthy person. The virus can be transmitted to a child from a sick mother. Developing in her womb, he is connected to her by the umbilical cord. Blood flows through blood vessels in both directions. If HIV is present in the mother's body, it can be transmitted to the child. In addition, there is a danger of infection of infants through mother's milk.

HIV can also be transmitted through sexual contact.

How to detect HIV?

Peter and Clara are brother and sister. One of them has HIV, the other does not, but this can be determined by appearance no way.

For example, a person with chickenpox develops a rash. It becomes clear to both him and everyone that he has chickenpox.

But HIV may remain undetectable for a long time, often for years. At the same time, for quite a long time a person feels absolutely healthy. This is what makes HIV very dangerous. After all, neither the person into whose body the virus has entered, nor those around him, have any idea. Without knowing about the presence of HIV in his body, this person can unwittingly infect others.

Nowadays, there are special tests (assays) that determine the presence of HIV in a person’s blood.

And if something worries you, it is better to get tested for AIDS in a timely manner and gain confidence and peace.

The girl heard about AIDS and HIV at school. Having learned that people may not even suspect the existence of a virus in their body, she was very scared and turned to her mother for advice. Her mother explained to her that HIV is extremely rare in children. These are mainly those children to whom the virus was inherited. The girl did not have the virus at birth, so she probably does not have it now.

If your parents didn't have the virus, you're unlikely to have it. Children, as a rule, are not exposed to situations where HIV infection can occur. So don't worry unnecessarily.

What happens when HIV or AIDS is detected?

It is very difficult to predict exactly what will happen to a person diagnosed with HIV, because the virus affects everyone differently; having HIV in your body and having AIDS are not the same thing. Many people infected with HIV live normal lives for many years. However, over time they may develop one or even more serious illnesses. In this case, doctors call it AIDS. There are a number of diseases, the disease of which means that a person has developed AIDS. However, it has not yet been established whether HIV always leads to the development of AIDS or not.

Tina is seriously ill. Doctors discovered she had AIDS. She had HIV for almost five years, and then her condition worsened sharply: she lost her appetite and began to lose weight. She then recovered and felt well for some time. But suddenly her temperature began to rise again, and almost every night she woke up sweating. Soon after, she developed pneumonia. This type of pneumonia is included in the list of diseases that are signs of AIDS, so the attending physician determined that she had developed AIDS. Typically, young people recover fairly quickly from pneumonia. Tina, due to disorders in the immune system, suffers from pneumonia very hard and may even die.

How to help sick people?

AIDS Advisory Centers are now open in many cities. Here everyone, without exception, can get information, both HIV-infected and healthy people. Such centers operate support and mutual aid groups. They include people who are united by a common problem: almost all of them have HIV and AIDS. Communication with people in similar situations has a very great importance. Group members provide each other with psychological support and friendly assistance. They, like no one else, understand perfectly what each of them feels and experiences.

For those seriously ill with AIDS, special hospitals are being opened - hospices. The people who work there have special training in caring for AIDS patients. Patients admitted to such hospitals are usually in very serious condition. Many of them are already doomed, and the hospital staff is trying to do everything possible to brighten up their last days.

Photos and tables - see attached.

9. Cholera

Cholera. (tropical disease).

This is an acute intestinal infection caused by Vibrio cholerae, characterized by damage to the enzyme systems of the intestinal epithelium. The causative agent is Vibrio cholerae.

The sources of the disease are sick people and vibrio carriers. Some cholera vibrios, entering the human body with water and food, die in the acidic environment of the gastrointestinal tract. The other part enters the lumen of the small intestine, where the alkaline reaction environment and the high content of protein breakdown products contribute to their intensive reproduction. This process is accompanied by the release of a large amount of toxic substances that penetrate the epithelial cell. Acute extracellular isotonic degradation develops, and tissue metabolism is disrupted. Dehydration of the body develops. In one hour, patients can lose more than 1 liter of fluid. Blood thickening occurs, blood flow slows down, peripheral circulation is impaired, tissue hypoxia occurs; the accumulation of under-oxidized metabolic products leads to the development of hypokalemia, disruption of cardiac activity, brain function and other organs, and blood clotting processes.

Susceptibility to cholera is high. Those most susceptible to the disease are those with low acidity of gastric juice, those suffering from gastritis, some forms of anemia and helminthic diseases.

Among the tropical diseases there are also helminthic diseases unique to this region: schistosomiasis, Wuchereriosis, some types of malaria and (ovale).

Nowadays, there are also mental illnesses. For example, schizophrenia.

10. Schizophrenia.

What is schizophrenia? What place does the problem of schizophrenia occupy in our everyday life? Is it only a medical problem or more of a social problem? Discussion of this and a host of other issues will help us understand whether we should be afraid of schizophrenia and avoid people suffering from this mental illness. How to treat them and behave when facing them face to face?

Let's start with the main question: is schizophrenia a disease or a way of perceiving reality from a different, alien point of view? Don't be surprised, this question is actually valid. The idea has been repeatedly expressed that nature is thus “searching” for new paths of development, “creating” paradoxical moves.

It can be assumed that the first monkey, who decided to knock a coconut from a palm tree with a stone, was somehow different from his other brothers. Although this approach is certainly very controversial and has not yet been confirmed, we are still talking about this in order to warn against the incorrect, avoidant, contemptuous attitude of relatives, friends and society as a whole towards people suffering from schizophrenia.

To save them from deliberately treating them as second-class citizens. Perhaps they are special creatures of nature, chosen in some ways, exceptionally talented, and in some ways disadvantaged and suffering from this.

Is schizophrenia a disease?

Yes, it is, since a disease is a certain deviation from a statistically determined norm. Just like a decrease in hemoglobin content in the blood, that is, its change, is called anemia and is a disease. Our mental functions have certain parameters that can be measured different ways(starting from psychological, neuropsychological, biochemical and others, up to electrometric). In addition, this, of course, is a disease, since it is suffering, sometimes painful, and people are looking for help.

We rightfully call schizophrenia a disease, but only from a clinical, medical point of view. In the social sense, it would be incorrect to call a person suffering from this disease sick, that is, inferior. Although this disease is chronic, the forms of schizophrenia are extremely diverse and often a person who is currently in remission, that is, outside of an attack (psychosis), can be quite capable, and even more professionally productive, than his average opponents.

To make all of the above more substantiated, it is necessary to talk about the essence of this disease. To begin with, a few words about the term “schizophrenia” itself. The word arose from the Greek “schizo” (“schizo”) - I split and “phren” - mind. Splitting does not mean splitting (for example, of personality), as this is often not entirely correctly understood, but disorganization, lack of harmony, inconsistency, and illogicality from the point of view of ordinary people.

For example, a very difficult person in everyday life, with difficult relationships within the family, cold and completely indifferent towards his loved ones, turns out to be unusually sensitive and touching with his favorite cacti. He can watch them for hours and cry completely sincerely and inconsolably when one of his plants dries up. Of course, from the outside it looks completely inadequate, but for him there is his own logic of relationships, which a person can justify. He’s just sure that all people are deceitful, and no one can be trusted. He feels his difference from others, and their inability to understand him. He knows that he is much smarter than those around him because he feels and sees what, for some reason, others do not see. So why waste time and energy on meaningless, primitive communication when there is such a miracle as cacti. They are magical, it seems that they have something inside them... After all, plants can communicate with him, and then, for him personally, harmony is achieved.

There are two types of course of schizophrenia - continuous (chronic delirium, chronic hallucinosis) and paroxysmal (the course of manifestations of psychosis is observed in the form of individual episodes, between which there are “light” intervals of relatively good mental state (remission), which are often quite long. Psychoses in this case the form of flow is more varied and vibrant than with a continuous one).

With any type of schizophrenia, changes in personality and character traits are observed under the influence of the disease.

A person becomes withdrawn, strange, and commits actions that are absurd and illogical from the point of view of others. The sphere of interests changes, hobbies that were completely unusual before appear. Sometimes these are dubious philosophical or religious teachings, or withdrawal into traditional religion, but to an excessive degree, to the point of fanaticism. Ideas for physical and spiritual self-improvement, healing using some special methods, often of your own invention, may arise. In such cases, a person directs all his energy to recreational activities, hardening, special nutrition, forgetting about obvious ordinary things, such as washing, cleaning, helping loved ones, and so on. The opposite may occur, a complete loss of activity and interests, passivity and indifference.

Types of schizophrenia also differ in the prevalence of core features: delusions, hallucinations, or personality changes. If delusion dominates, this type is called paranoid. In the case of a combination of delusions and hallucinations, they speak of the hallucinatory-paranoid variant. If personality changes come to the fore, then such conditions are called a simple variant of schizophrenia (there are other varieties).

The biochemical era of schizophrenia began in 1952. This is the year of the discovery of neuroleptics. In 1952 The school of the Sainte-Anne Hospital in Paris publishes a number of interesting reports on the use of the drug Largactil, and in 1955 an international symposium is held on Largactil. That same year, scientists DeLay and Deniker proposed that the Academy of Medicine introduce the term “neuroleptics,” literally—which traps the nerve—to designate a new family of medications.

The mechanism of action of neuroleptics makes it possible to reduce hallucinatory-delusional positivity. But these drugs have many side effects.

The next era in psychiatry can undoubtedly be called the discovery in the 80s of the last century and the introduction into clinical practice in the mid-90s of new or atypical antipsychotics, which can significantly alleviate both positive and negative symptoms of the disease. Due to their selective action, they have an effect on a wider range of symptoms and are much better tolerated, which significantly improves the quality of life of mental patients. Due to these properties, they have become prescribed throughout the world as the drugs of choice for the treatment of schizophrenia.

11. Diseases that have appeared in our century.

Atypical pneumonia.

At the beginning of 2003 The whole world watched with intense attention the rapid spread of a new disease unknown to anyone. The danger of a new infection was beyond doubt, because... many sick people died, despite all the efforts of doctors. And among the attending physicians there were cases of the disease with a fatal outcome. In the press, this disease began to be called “SARS.” Atypical pneumonia is the same as severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), or SARS.

The disease quickly spread throughout the world, and no medicine helped. This forced many journalists and medical specialists to talk about the emergence of the most dangerous disease since the discovery of the AIDS virus.

The SARS epidemic is believed to have begun in Guangdong Province in China on the border with Hong Kong: February 11, 2003. There was an outbreak of unusually acute influenza, similar in manifestations and consequences to severe bilateral pneumonia. 5 sick people died. On February 20, the number of people who died from acute influenza in China reached 21. On March 11, Professor N.V. Kaverin, head of the laboratory of the Institute of Virology of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, reported that in February in Hong Kong, a patient died in whom the influenza virus of the H5N1 subtype was isolated. This is the same “Chicken Flu” with high mortality that people got here in 1997, but then they got infected from chickens, and now it looked like the infection came from a person.

Experts knew nothing about the causative agent of the disease, except that it spreads very quickly and is transmitted by airborne droplets. SARS has spread beyond China; cases of the disease have been reported in Vietnam and Singapore.

The area of ​​spread of the disease expanded every day: on March 15, the first cases of SARS were announced in Europe (Germany) and North America (Canada), on March 17 in Israel, on March 18 in France.

On March 16, a WHO statement was published on the final identification of the nature of the causative agent of SARS. The painstaking work of employees of 13 laboratories in 10 countries and genetic examination showed that the disease is caused by one of the representatives of the coronavirus groups. However, this virus has never previously been observed in the human population, which confirmed the information that the SARS virus came to humans from domestic and wild cats. It is in the southern provinces of China, where the infection began to spread, that cats are eaten. On the same day, a WHO representative at a congress of SARS virus researchers in Geneva announced that this disease is common to humans and animals. This is confirmed by experiments on monkeys: injection of the virus into them causes a disease with the same symptoms as in humans.

On April 24, the first patient with atypical pneumonia was registered in Bulgaria. On the same day, the State Sanitary and Epidemiological Supervision Service of Russia for the first time distributed a memo to the population, which provides the necessary information about SARS.

On May 8, the Russian Ministry of Health announced the first case of atypical pneumonia: in Blagoveshchensk, a 25-year-old man who lived in a Chinese dormitory had two out of five indicators of atypical pneumonia, but for another month there was debate about whether he had typical or atypical pneumonia.

May 9 - The world recorded its 500th death from SARS. The number of cases exceeded 7 thousand people.

The memo of the State Sanitary and Epidemiological Supervision of Russia provides basic information about atypical pneumonia. The disease has an acute onset - temperature above 38 degrees, headache, sore throat, dry cough. The patient experiences general malaise, muscle pain, and chills. Sometimes there is diarrhea, nausea, and one or two times of mild vomiting. This is followed by a short-term improvement with possible normalization of body temperature. If the disease progresses, the body temperature rises again, weakness increases, and the patient begins to feel short of breath. Breathing becomes difficult and rapid. Patients feel anxious, complain of chest tightness and palpitations. During this period, the disease mainly affects the lungs, and pneumonia develops. The incubation period is 3-10 days. The infection is transmitted by airborne droplets, usually through close contact. There is no effective cure for the disease yet, and no vaccine has been developed. Prevention is the same as for other infectious respiratory diseases: regular ventilation and wet cleaning, personal hygiene, hardening, use of restoratives and vitamins.

There are different hypotheses about the occurrence of the disease:

1. SARS may be a new type of biological weapon developed by intelligence agencies.

2. Traditional interest in the use of foods unusual for Europeans and the associated health hazards. In the cooking of China and other Asian countries, cats, dogs, monkeys and other animals are used as food. The virus most likely came to humans from domestic and wild cats.

3. Interest in the possibility of the emergence in nature of new deadly viruses like HIV, which can lead to the death of humanity. The SARS virus may have arisen as a result of a natural mutation of viruses circulating in populations of domestic and wild animals.

4. Artificial hype around pseudo-influenza in order to obtain additional funding from medical and pharmaceutical corporations.

Characteristics of avian influenza in birds Clinical manifestations and immunity in birds Despite the high lethality of the H5N1 influenza virus, most domestic chickens in Hong Kong did not exhibit any clinical signs diseases. At the same time, the H9N2 influenza virus was circulating in the chicken population. When studying the role of the H9N2 virus in protecting chickens from lethal viral infection H5N1 virus, serum from chickens infected with the H9N2 virus was found to not cross-react with the H5N1 virus in the neutralization test and the hemagglutination inhibition test. Most chickens infected with H9N2 influenza virus 3 to 70 days before H5N1 challenge survived the challenge, but infected birds shed H5N1 influenza virus in their feces. Adoptive transfer of T lymphocytes or CD81 T cells from inbred chickens (B2/B2) infected with the H9N2 influenza virus to naively inbred chickens (B2/B2) protected them from the lethal H5N1 virus. An in vitro cytotoxicity assay showed that T lymphocytes or CD81 T cells from chickens infected with H9N2 influenza virus recognized target cells infected with both H5N1 and H9N2 avian influenza virus in a dose-dependent manner. This shows that H9N2 influenza virus-induced cross-cellular immunity protected domestic chickens from lethal H5N1 infection in Hong Kong in 1997 but did not prevent virus shedding in feces. In addition, it demonstrates that cross-cellular immunity can alter the outcome of avian influenza infection in poultry and create a situation of persistence of the H5N1 avian influenza virus. Various vaccines were also compared. Three vaccines—an inactivated whole virus vaccine, an avian influenza virus hemagglutinin vaccine derived from a baculovirus, and a recombinant avian influenza virus hemagglutinin vaccine—were tested for their ability to protect chickens against the highly pathogenic H5 avian influenza virus. The vaccines and challenge viruses (or their protein components) were derived from field strains of avian influenza virus of various origins and included strains obtained from 4 continents, 6 host species and over a 38-year period. The vaccines protected against the development of clinical symptoms and reduced the amount of virus excreted by birds and the titer of virus excreted after administration of the hemagglutinin of the control H5 avian influenza virus. Immunization with these vaccines should reduce the spread of avian influenza virus through the respiratory and digestive tract and reduce bird-to-bird transmission. Although the most significant reduction in respiratory viral shedding was achieved when the vaccine was most similar to the control virus, genetic drift of the avian influenza virus should not affect the underlying protection, as is the case with human influenza. Infection in poultry may not be obvious or may cause respiratory disease, decreased egg production, or a rapidly fatal systemic disease known as highly pathogenic avian influenza. Neutralizing antibodies to hemagglutinin and neuraminidase proteins provide primary protection against the disease. Various vaccines induce the production of neutralizing antibodies, including killed whole-virion vaccines and recombinant vaccinia virus vaccines. Apparently, antigenic drift of the virus in the case of avian influenza plays a lesser role in vaccination failure compared to human influenza. The cytotoxic T-lymphocyte response may reduce virus shedding into the environment in low pathogenic avian influenza but provides controversial protection against highly pathogenic avian influenza. Influenza virus may directly influence the immune response of infected birds, but the role of the MX gene, interferons and other cytokines in protection against avian influenza remains unknown. Characteristics of avian influenza in humans Epidemiology of the disease (reservoir, transmission mechanism, susceptibility and immunity, features of the epidemiological process) In May 1997 A 3-year-old boy in Hong Kong suffered from fever, throat ulcers and cough. His illness lasted about 2 weeks and he died of pneumonia. Influenza A virus was isolated from tracheal fluid, but it could not be typed using standard reagents. This got me thinking about a new strain. In August, 3 laboratories independently identified this virus as a strain of influenza A new to humans (H5N1). Before the disease, the boy had contact with infected chickens. Thus, this was the first documented case of H5N1 avian influenza A virus infection in humans. Before this incident, it was believed that the avian influenza virus only affected birds. Infection with the same virus was then confirmed in 17 other patients ranging in age from 2 to 60 years. By January 1998, 6 people had died from the disease. There is no direct evidence of human-to-human transmission of the virus: all infected people (even those living together in the same room) had contact with an infected bird. There are no vaccines available for this strain, and efforts are currently underway to find a candidate vaccine strain for the development and production of a commercial vaccine. The main distinctive features of the 2004 virus can be briefly formulated as follows: · The virus has become more virulent, indicating that the virus has mutated. · The virus has crossed the interspecies barrier from birds to humans, but there is no evidence yet that the virus is transmitted directly from person to person (all sick people had direct contact with an infected bird). · The virus infects and kills mainly children. · The source of infection and the route of spread of the virus have not been determined, which makes the situation with the spread of the virus practically uncontrollable. · Measures to prevent the spread - complete destruction of the entire poultry population. The outbreak of avian influenza in Hong Kong has particularly clearly demonstrated the role of poultry as a source of infection for humans. In May 2001, influenza A virus subtype H5N1 was isolated from duck meat imported into North Korea from China. Although this isolate was not as pathogenic as the 1997 isolate, the isolation of a highly pathogenic H5N1 influenza virus from poultry suggests that the virus continues to circulate in China and may pose a risk of transmission from birds to humans. The persistent circulation of avian influenza virus types H5N1 and H9N2, which crossed the species barrier from birds to humans in 1997 and 1999, has the potential to cause a human pandemic. However, although the avian influenza virus has some of the characteristics of a pandemic virus, it does not have the ability to spread rapidly through the human population, which is a necessary condition for a pandemic to occur. The avian virus is difficult to stop as the virus appears to have mutated since the last outbreak in Hong Kong in 1997 and 2003. Migratory birds can spread it, as evidenced by the fact that a peregrine falcon was found dead in Hong Kong carrying the virus. Unlike the 1997 and 2003 viruses, the 2004 H5N1 virus became more virulent, as evidenced by the unusually high number of poultry deaths. This increases the risk of people getting sick. It is also necessary to pay attention to the increasing danger of chilled and frozen poultry meat, since the H5N1 virus can survive for many years at temperatures below -70 0 C. However, it is destroyed by proper cooking of meat. Containing avian influenza outbreaks depends on accurately identifying how the virus spreads. Unusually, it is primarily spread by migratory birds. It is known from previous experience that people and equipment are responsible for the spread of avian influenza between farms. In 1997, the outbreak in Hong Kong was contained due to the fact that the entire poultry population in the country was destroyed. The virus has now spread among poultry throughout Asia, making the outbreak much more difficult to contain. Compared to previous outbreaks, the 2004 avian influenza epidemic may affect many more farms. At the same time, transmission of the virus through Asia is possible, since the factors causing the spread of the virus are not controlled. WHO notes that the near-simultaneous outbreaks of avian influenza in Japan, North Korea, Vietnam and now Thailand and Cambodia are historically unprecedented and there is concern that this new, virulent strain of avian influenza virus could affect the entire world. The rate of evolution of avian influenza virus varies between natural hosts (waterfowl, plovers and gulls) and aberrant hosts (chickens, turkeys, piglets, horses and humans). The rate of evolution determined for all three outbreaks was similar to that observed in mammals, providing strong evidence for adaptation of the avian influenza virus to new host species. So far, avian influenza does not appear to be transmitted from person to person, but the poultry epidemic is making such transmission increasingly likely. All that is required is the correct recombination between the H5N1 strain and the coexisting human influenza strain. This could happen if any humans or other animals become sick with human and bird flu at the same time, allowing the viruses to exchange genes and create a new strain that can be easily transmitted from person to person. There is still no evidence that this happened, since in all known cases of the disease, infection occurred through direct contact with chickens. This situation is dangerous because if a pandemic occurs, it will have more tragic consequences than the 1968 pandemic. Bird flu affects mainly children - according to Reuters reports on January 26, 2004. Of the 7 victims of bird flu, 6 are children. Why this happens is unknown. Clinical manifestations, pathogenesis Symptoms of avian influenza in humans range from typical flu-like symptoms (fever, cough, sore throat and muscle pain) to eye infections, pneumonia, acute respiratory illness, viral pneumonia and other severe, life-threatening symptoms. The pathogenesis of avian influenza virus has been studied in mice because it is one of the most widely used and studied models for studying the pathogenesis of viruses in mammals, but an alternative has been proposed to study avian influenza virus in ferrets, in which it is also pathogenic. A study of the pathogenicity of avian and human H5N1 virus isolates from Hong Kong in 6-8 week old BALB/c mice showed that both avian and human isolates caused disease in mice characterized by hypothermia, clinical symptoms, quick loss weight and 75-100% mortality 6-8 days after infection. Three non-Hong Kong isolates did not produce any clinical manifestations. One isolate, A/tk/England/91 (H5N1), caused moderate disease and all but one animal recovered. The infection resulted in mild to severe involvement of both the upper and lower respiratory tracts. Most often, the virus caused necrosis in the respiratory epithelium of the nasal cavity, trachea, bronchi and bronchioles with accompanying inflammation. The most severe and extensive lesions were observed in the lungs of mice infected with the Hong Kong avian influenza virus, while the lesions were mild in mice infected with the A/ck/Scotland/59 (H5N1) and A/ck/Queretaro/95 (H5N2) viruses or were not observed at all. Viruses A/ck/Italy/97 (H5N2) and A/tk/England/91 (H5N1) showed intermediate pathogenicity, causing mild to moderate damage to the respiratory tract. In addition, infection caused by different virus isolates could be further determined by the immune response of the mice. Non-Hong Kong isolates produced elevated levels of active transforming growth factor b following infection, whereas Hong Kong isolates did not. When mice are infected with a human isolate of influenza A virus H5N1, two groups are distinguished that differ in virulence. Using modern genetic methods, a mutation at position 627 in the PB2 protein was shown to affect the outcome of infection in mice. Moreover, high degradability of hemagglutin is a necessary condition for the lethality of the infection. Earlier studies also indicated the presence of two groups of viruses: group 1, for which the MLD50 was between 0.3 and 11 PFU, and group 2, for which the MLD50 was more than 10 3 PFU. One day after intranasal inoculation of mice with 100 PFU of group 1 virus, the virus titer in the lungs was 10 7 PFU/g, or 3 log more than for group 2 viruses. Both types of viruses replicated to high titers (>10 6 PFU/g) in the lungs on day 3 and remained at this level for 6 days. More importantly, only the first group of viruses caused systemic infection and replicated in non-respiratory organs, including the brain. Immunohistochemical analysis showed that the replication of viruses of the first group occurred in brain neurons, glial cells and cardiac myofibers. The virulence mechanism responsible for the lethality of influenza viruses in birds also operates in mammalian hosts. The fact that some H5N1 viruses did not produce systemic infection in models suggests that multiple factors, yet to be determined, contribute to the severity of H5N1 infection in mammals. In addition, the ability of these viruses to produce systemic infection in mice and the distinct differences in pathogenicity among isolates indicate that this system is a useful model for studying avian influenza virus pathogenesis in mammals. In addition, it has been shown that one of the factors influencing the pathogenesis of the H5N1 virus is the destructive effect on the immune system, which differs between lethal and non-lethal isolates of the H5N1 virus. A number of works are devoted to the biochemical aspects that affect virulence, adaptation of the virus to a new host, immune response and pathogenesis. Immediately after the 1997-1999 outbreaks, the search for a vaccine against the avian influenza virus began. Because the nonadapted H5N1 virus is pathogenic in mice, these animals have been used as a model of the mammalian immune system to study lethal avian influenza infection. The production of a vaccine against the H5N1 influenza virus in the chicken embryo system is not possible due to the death of chicken embryos when infected with this virus and the high level of biosafety required to work with this virus and produce a vaccine based on this virus. An avirulent H5N4 virus isolated from migratory ducks, an H5N1 virus, and an avirulent recombinant H5N1 virus were used to develop a whole virus vaccine. All vaccines were inactivated with formaldehyde. Intraperitoneal immunization of mice with each vaccine elicited hemagglutinin-inhibiting and virus-neutralizing antibodies, while intranasal vaccination without adjuvant induced both mucosal and systemic antibody responses that protected mice from challenge with the lethal H5N virus. Intramuscular administration of a vaccine based on the non-pathogenic A/Duck/Singapore-Q/F119-3/97 (H5N3) strain, antigenically related to the human H5N1 virus, with or without alum, resulted in complete protection against lethal viral challenge H5N1. Protection against infection was observed in 70% of animals that received the vaccine alone and in 100% of animals that received the vaccine in combination with alum. The protective effect of vaccination correlated with the level of virus-specific serum antibodies. These results suggest that it may be possible to use antigenically related but non-pathogenic influenza viruses as vaccine candidates in the event of a pandemic. DNA vaccine studies have shown that a DNA vaccine encoding the hemagglutinin from A/Ty/Ir/1/83 (H5N8), which differs from A/HK/156/97 (H5N1) by up to 12% in HA1, prevents the death of mice, but not a disease due to H5N1 infection. Therefore, a DNA vaccine made from the heterologous H5 strain does not protect mice from infection with the H5N1 avian influenza virus, but is useful in protecting mice from death. Influenza vaccines that induce significant cross-heterosubtypic immunity can overcome the limitations of vaccine effectiveness caused by antigenic variability of the influenza A virus. Mice receiving three intranasal immunizations with the H3N2 vaccine in combination LT(R192G) were fully protected during a lethal challenge with the highly pathogenic human H5N1 virus, with viral titers in the nasal cavity and lungs were at least 2500-fold lower than in control mice receiving LT(R192G) alone. In contrast, mice that received three subcutaneous vaccinations with H3N2 vaccine in the presence or absence of LT(R192G) or Freund's incomplete adjuvant were not protected during a lethal challenge and no detectable reduction in tissue viral titers was observed at day 5 post-H5N1 challenge. Vaccination without LT(R192G) resulted in only partial protection against the heterosubtype challenge. The results of the heterosubtypic immunity study confirmed the usefulness of mucosal vaccination, which stimulates cross-protection against multiple viral subtypes, including viruses that pose a potential pandemic threat. Development of detection and diagnostic tools During the 1997 outbreak, the hemagglutination inhibition assay, standard for serological detection of influenza infection in humans, showed low sensitivity in detecting antibodies to avian influenza virus. In this regard, to determine antibodies to the avian influenza virus in humans, a more sensitive method of microneutralization and H5 specific indirect ELISA (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay) was proposed. The sensitivity and specificity of these methods were comparable and, in addition, increased significantly when combined with Western blot. Maximum sensitivity (80%) and specificity (96%) in determining anti-H5 antibodies in adults aged 18 to 59 years was achieved using microneutralization in combination with Western blotting, and maximum sensitivity (100%) and specificity (100%) with determination of anti-H5 antibodies in the serum of children under 15 years of age was achieved using ELISA in combination with Western blot. This algorithm can be used in seroepidemiological studies of H5N1 avian influenza outbreaks. It has also been shown that highly pathogenic neurotropic variants of the H5N1 avian influenza virus can be rapidly isolated in mice. Additionally, RT-PCR (polymerase chain reaction) was used as early as 1995 to rapidly determine the sequence of the hemagglutinin cleavage site, a marker of the virulence potential of avian influenza viruses. This technique, combined with hemagglutinin cleavage site sequencing, may serve as a rapid and sensitive method for assessing the potential virulence of avian influenza viruses. Early detection of virulence-associated sequences at the hemagglutinin cleavage site in field isolates of the virus will help to better control influenza in the vast poultry population. Subsequently, a simple molecular rapid genotyping method was developed to monitor the internal genes of circulating influenza A virus. The virus subtyping strategy was tested blindly on 10 control viruses of each subtype H1N1, H3N2 and H5N1 (30 in total) and found to be highly effective. A standardized genotyping method was used to identify the source of the intrinsic genes of 51 influenza A viruses isolated from humans in Hong Kong during and immediately after the 1997–1998 outbreaks. The same technique was used to characterize the internal genes of two H9N2 avian influenza virus isolates obtained in Hong Kong in 1999. More recently, a real-time reverse transcriptase PCR (RRT-PCR) assay was developed to rapidly detect influenza A virus and influenza A virus subtypes H5 and H7. This assay uses a one-step detection method and fluorescent probes. The limit of detection is about 1000 copies of the target RNA. Using this method, it is possible to determine 0.1 50% infectious dose for chicken embryos. For the analysis of influenza A virus subtypes, the detection limit is 10 3 -10 4 copies of the target RNA. The sensitivity and specificity of this method were directly compared with standard techniques for the detection of influenza virus: influenza isolation in chicken embryos and hemagglutinin subtyping in the hemagglutination inhibition test. Comparisons were made on 1,550 tracheal and cloacal swabs from various bird species and environmental swabs collected from live poultry markets in New York and New Jersey. RRT-PCR results correlated with the results of influenza isolation in chicken embryos in 89% of samples. The remaining samples were positive when determined by only one of the methods. In general, the sensitivity and specificity of the H7- and H5-specific assays was similar to the method of virus isolation in chicken embryos and the hemagglutination inhibition test. Treatment of the disease Research to date suggests that drugs developed for human influenza strains will be effective against avian influenza infections in humans, but it is possible that influenza strains may become resistant to such drugs and render the drugs ineffective. The isolated virus was found to be sensitive to amantadine and rimantadine, which inhibit the reproduction of the influenza A virus and are used in the treatment of human influenza. In addition, a number of other drugs have been studied. The neuraminidase inhibitor zanzivir inhibited viral replication on hamster kidney cells in a viral yield assay (50% effective concentration, 8.5-14.0 mM) and inhibited viral neuraminidase activity (50% inhibitory concentration, 5-10 nM). Intranasal administration of zanzivir twice daily (50 and 100 mg/kg body weight) completely protected mice from death. At a dose of 10 mg/kg body weight, zanzivir completely protected mice from infection with the H9N2 virus and increased the life expectancy and the number of survivors of mice infected with the H6N1 and H5N1 viruses. At all doses tested, zanzivir significantly reduced viral titers in the lungs and completely blocked the spread of the virus to the brain. Thus, zanzivir is effective in treating avian influenza, which can be transmitted to mammals. The orally administered neuraminidase inhibitor RWJ-270201 was tested in parallel with zanamivir and oseltamivir in a panel of avian influenza viruses to inhibit neuraminidase activity and replication in tissue culture. These agents were then tested to protect mice against lethal H5N1 and H9N2 infections. In vitro, RWJ-270201 was most effective against all nine neuraminidase subtypes. RWJ-270201 (50% inhibition concentration 0.9 to 4.3 nM) was superior to zanamivir and oseltamivir carboxylate in neuraminidase inhibition. RWJ-270201 inhibited the replication of avian influenza virus of both Eurasian and American lines on MDCK cells (50% effective concentration from 0.5 to 11.8 mM). Mice given RWJ-270201 daily at 10 mg per kg body weight were completely protected against challenge with a lethal dose of A/Hong Kong/156/97 (H5N1) and A/quail/Hong Kong/G1/97 (H9N2) viruses. Both RWJ-270201 and oseltamivir significantly reduced viral titers in the lungs of mice when daily doses from 1.0 to 10 mg/kg and protected the spread of the virus to the brain. When treatment began 48 hours after exposure to H5N1 virus, 10 mg RWJ-270201/kg body weight daily protected 50% of mice from death. These results confirmed that RWJ-270201 is at least as effective as zanamivir or oseltamivir against avian influenza virus and could potentially be used clinically to treat avian influenza transmitted from birds to humans. Potential danger of an influenza pandemic All influenza viruses have the potential to change. There is a possibility that the avian influenza virus could change in such a way that it could infect people and spread easily from person to person. Because these viruses do not typically infect humans, there is very little or no immune defense against such viruses in the human population. If the avian influenza virus becomes capable of infecting people and acquires the ability to spread easily from person to person, an influenza pandemic could begin. This fact is confirmed by American and British scientists in their message on February 05, 2004: the results of their research indicate that the Spanish flu was so deadly due to the fact that it evolved from bird flu and contained a unique protein that humans did not have immunity. This is also evidenced by data on the degree of divergence of antigenic sites of hemagglutinin during the antigenic drift of the virus between 1918 and 1934, confirming the hypothesis that the human influenza virus that caused the 1918 pandemic originated from the avian influenza virus of subtype H1, which overcame the species barrier from birds to humans and adapted to humans, presumably by mutation and/or reassortment sometime before 1918. Typically, influenza A viruses have a well-defined host range, but host range limitation is polygenic in nature and is not absolute. Sometimes interspecies transmission of the virus occurs both in natural conditions and during adaptation to a new host in laboratory conditions. Influenza viruses are characterized by constant antigenic variability. Two types of variability - drift and shift - change both surface antigens of the influenza A virus. With antigenic drift, small changes occur in the structure of hemagglutinin and neuraminidase, while with antigenic shift, changes in these protein molecules caused by reassortment of genomic segments are very significant. A number of genetic and serological data suggest that human influenza pandemics may result from gene reassortment between human and avian viruses. This means that when 2 viruses infect the same cells, the viral progeny can inherit sets of genomic RNA segments that represent recombinations of RNA segments from both parent viruses. The theoretically possible number of such combinations that can form a complete RNA genome during a competitive infection is 2256. However, only a few reassortant viruses have the correct combination of genes necessary for efficient reproduction in natural conditions. Genetic and biological studies suggest that pigs may provide a "mixing vessel" for the production of a new reassortant influenza virus similar to the 1957 and 1968 pandemic viruses. Currently, the emergence of a pandemic influenza virus is possible by transfer of genes from a waterfowl reservoir to humans via reassortment in pigs, a hypothetical "mixing vessel." Understanding the 1997 H5N1 influenza outbreak in Hong Kong and the isolation of the H9N2 avian influenza virus from humans raise alternative possibilities for the emergence of a new pandemic virus. H9N2 viruses discovered in amphibian poultry in southern China have migrated back to aquatic domestic ducks, in which these viruses generate multiple reassortants. These new H9N2 viruses are double or even triple reassortants that have the potential to directly infect humans. Some of them contain gene segments that are completely related to those of A/Hong Kong/156/97 (H5N1/97, H5N1) or A/Quail/Hong Kong/G1/97 (G1-like, H9N2). More importantly, some of these intrinsic genes are closely related to those of the new H5N1 virus isolated from the 2001 Hong Kong outbreak. A two-way transmission of influenza virus between terrestrial and aquatic birds has been discovered, which facilitates the generation of new reassortants of the H9N2 influenza virus. Such reassortants could play a direct role in the emergence of the next pandemic virus. The H5N1 and H9N2 viruses share similar characteristics, raising the possibility of a new human pathogen emerging. Genes encoding H5N1 circulate in mainland China, preserving the possibility of viral reassortment. The H5N1 virus circulating in live poultry markets spans two distinct phylogenetic lineages in all genes that are evolving very rapidly. In accordance with WHO guidance, the Dutch Ministry of Health, Welfare and Sports has developed a national plan to minimize the impact of an influenza pandemic. As part of the pandemic preparedness plan, the significance of the problem was assessed based on the number of hospitalizations and deaths during the influenza pandemic. Using scenario analysis, the potential effect of a possible intervention was explored. Development scenarios are described and compared to understand the potential impact of the pandemic (morbidity, hospitalization and death), different types of interventions and critical model parameters. Scenario analysis is a useful tool for making policy decisions regarding the development and planning of epidemic control and management at the national, regional and local levels. Influenza pandemics in the human population An influenza pandemic is a global outbreak of influenza and occurs when a new influenza virus emerges, spreads, and causes illness throughout the world. Recent influenza virus pandemics have resulted in high levels of morbidity, mortality, social instability, and economic losses. In the 20th century, there were three pandemics and 1 global epidemic close to a pandemic (1977). Pandemic pathogens spread throughout the world within about a year of being discovered. This: 1918-1919 - Spanish flu, Spanish flu. Caused the greatest number of deaths, with more than 500,000 people killed in the United States and between 20 and 50 million people killed worldwide. Many people died within the first few days of getting sick, and many more as a result of complications from the flu. About half of the dead were young, healthy adults. 1957-1958 - Asian flu. Caused approximately 70,000 deaths in the US. First reported in China in late February 1957, Asian influenza reached the United States in June 1957. 1968-1969 - Hong Kong flu. Caused approximately 34,000 deaths in the US. It was first recorded in Hong Kong in early 1968 and reached the United States at the end of that year. The influenza A (H3N2) virus is still circulating. The influenza virus was first isolated in 1933. Interestingly, each new virus (Asian, Hong Kong) first appeared in China, and it is believed that the viruses that caused epidemics that occurred before 1933 also originated in China. These pandemic viruses had several common features. The first outbreaks of pandemics caused by these viruses occurred in Southeast Asia. The emergence of the H2N2 and H3N2 viruses was accompanied by the disappearance from the human population of viruses that circulated before them (viruses of the H1N1 and H2N2 subtypes, respectively). Why viruses previously circulating in the human population disappeared with the emergence of new viruses remains unclear. The antigenic specificity of the pandemic viruses responsible for the Asian and Hong Kong influenza differed from the influenza viruses that circulated in humans before their emergence. The agent of the 1977 Russian flu epidemic (subtype H1N1) was essentially identical to the viruses circulating among humans in 1950. It is highly doubtful that this virus survived in nature for more than 20 years without any changes. Therefore, it is logical to conclude that the virus was kept frozen until it was somehow introduced into the human population. Typically, once an influenza virus has emerged and spread, it will establish itself among people and circulate for many years. The US Centers for Disease Control and WHO have extensive monitoring programs for influenza cases around the world, including the emergence of potentially pandemic strains of influenza virus.

12. Conclusion.

Medical geography is a complex science. Therefore, it is closely related to many related sciences. One of them is ecology.

A distinctive feature of the high-tech twentieth century is public interest in environmental problems. The issue of nature conservation acquired particular relevance in the last decades of the last century, when the connection between the increase in morbidity and the state of the environment became obvious. In the early 1970s, a powerful green movement emerged in Western Europe, which remains active to this day. Young Germans, French, Austrians, and Danes united in the fight against environmental pollution, the harmful consequences of nuclear energy development, for the reduction of military budgets and the democratization of public life. By revealing the truth about the threat of environmental disaster, the “greens” encourage people to reduce their consumption of natural resources, which can ultimately reduce the generation of industrial waste.

Progress has always been associated with increased consumption of material goods. European countries have long passed the stage of reckless accumulation of wealth and are already close to becoming a society with a moderate consumer culture. Unfortunately, this cannot be said about developing countries, which include Russia. To get closer to the consumption standards of developed countries, it is necessary to increase the use of raw materials and energy. According to scientists, under existing conditions the planet will not withstand the load, and an environmental catastrophe will become inevitable. The restructuring of economic policy towards rational environmental management in the West began in the 1980s, but changing the consumer orientation of society turned out to be much more difficult.

In the absence of waste-free industries, developing countries are unable to recycle more than 10% of household and industrial waste. Moreover, even such a small part of waste is destroyed without proper compliance with sanitary standards. According to WHO, approximately a third of the world's population does not have minimum sanitation conditions. This refers to cramped housing, lack of hot water supply, and often a lack of clean drinking water; for example, residents of many regions of Transcaucasia, Central and South Asia use muddy water from mountain rivers for all their needs, being potential sources of large-scale epidemics. Approximately half of the urban population in underdeveloped countries is not provided with adequate waste disposal facilities. According to statistics, more than 5 million people on Earth die every year from diseases associated with environmental pollution. The past century has left a legacy of industrial diseases to the new century. For example, Minamata disease is caused by mercury poisoning. Yusho-Yu-Cheng disease, first noted in industrial areas of Southeast Asia, is a liver injury caused by dioxin. In 1976 In one of the Italian cities, hundreds of people were poisoned by dioxin as a result of violation of the rules for the disposal of chemical waste. In the western part of Kazakhstan, asbestosis is widespread - the destruction of the lungs by asbestos dust; Phosphorus-manganese intoxication, called Kashin-Beck disease, is “popular” in the Semipalatinsk region. The tragedy of the century is the accident at the nuclear power plant in Chernobyl, which immediately took the lives of thousands of people and continues to kill offspring through irradiated parents and a radioactive ecological system.

Experts warn that the process of restoring the lost natural balance exceeds the capabilities of available technical means. In their opinion, natural ecosystems are much more complex than human civilization. Even their partial destruction can disrupt the flows of information that control the normal functioning and sustainable development of the biosphere.

Thus, environmental problems have long gone beyond the scope of medicine, economics and politics, becoming a philosophical phenomenon. Issues of saving the environment today are considered by representatives of various fields of knowledge, who agree that the victory of the human mind will be the main achievement of the 21st century.

As mentioned above, medicine as a science does not stand still, but moves forward. And I hope I can take part in the development of vaccines and treatments terrible diseases new century: AIDS, SARS, Bird flu. And also in improving the treatment and prevention of already familiar diseases. inherited by humanity since ancient times.

13.References

1.V.P.Maksakovsky “Geography 10th grade”

2.T.V.Kucher, I.F.Kolpashchikova “Medical Geography”

3.E.N.Gritsak “Popular history of medicine”

4.Yu.E.Korneev “Health of the population of Russia in an ecological arrangement”

5. E.N. Pavlovsky “Medical geography. XIV Geographical Collection

6. A.F. Treshnikov “Medical geography and health”

7.E.I.Egnatiev “Medical geography and development of new areas

Siberia and the Far East"

8. F. F. Talyzin “Travels after the invisible enemy”

MATERIAL

for the seminar lesson
"Global problems of human health »

Grade 11.

Developed by: Kokonina Zinaida Ivanovna, geography teacher of MOAU “Lyceum No. 2” in Orenburg
The purpose of the lesson : to introduce students to global problems of human health, to the concept of “Medical geography, geography of infectious diseases”
Equipment: political map of the world, slides, reports, student presentations.

Global problems are problems that cover the whole world, all of humanity, pose a threat to its present and future and require united efforts and joint actions of all states and peoples to be solved. (Slide No. 1)

1. Problems of the most “universal” nature,

2. Problems of a natural and economic nature,

3. Problems of a social nature,

4. Mixed problems .

1.environmental problem;

demographic problem;

the problem of peace and disarmament, prevention of nuclear war;

food problem - how to provide food for the growing population of the Earth?

energy and raw materials problems: causes and solutions;

human health problems: a global problem;

problem of using the World Ocean.

As we see, there are many global problems, but I would like to dwell on the Global Problem of Human Health.

Infectious diseases that claimed thousands of lives in ancient times unfortunately continue to occur today, although medicine has stepped forward since then thanks to scientific progress and the great discoveries of medical scientists, biologists, and ecologists. Recently, in world practice, when assessing the quality of life of people, the state of their health comes first. And this is not accidental: after all, it is precisely this that serves as the basis for the full life and activity of every person, and society as a whole.

In the second half of the 20th century. Great strides have been made in the fight against many diseases - plague, cholera, smallpox, yellow fever, polio, and other diseases.

Many diseases continue to threaten people's lives, often becoming truly global. Among them are cardiovascular diseases, from which 15 million people die every year in the world, malignant tumors, sexually transmitted diseases, drug addiction, and malaria. AIDS poses an even greater threat to all humanity. When considering this problem, we must keep in mind that when assessing a person’s health, we cannot limit ourselves only to his physiological health. This concept also includes moral (spiritual) and mental health, with which the situation is also unfavorable, including in Russia. That is why human health continues to be one of the priority global problems. People's health largely depends on natural factors, on the level of development of society, scientific and technological achievements, living and working conditions, the state of the environment, the development of the healthcare system, etc. All these factors are closely interrelated and together either promote health or cause certain diseases.

Medical geography studies natural conditions in order to identify the natural influences of a complex of these conditions on human health. In this case, socio-economic factors must be taken into account. The development of medical geography as a science spans millennia; it depended on the development of many other sciences, primarily on geography and medicine, as well as on physics, chemistry, biology, etc. Each new discovery and achievement in these areas of knowledge contributed to the development of medical geography. Scientists from many countries around the world have contributed to determining the goals and objectives of medical geography and its content. However, many issues of this science remain controversial and require further study.

It has long been noted that certain human diseases occur in certain parts of the globe and arise after contact with certain types of plants and animals living in specific natural conditions. The knowledge accumulated in this area has made it possible to identify an independent branch of medicine - geographic pathology (pathology (from the Greek pathos - suffering, illness) - the science of diseases, painful conditions of the body. Geographic pathology - private pathology - studies the spread of certain diseases in different areas globe)).

What is medical geography?

Medical geography is a branch of science that studies the natural conditions of an area in order to understand the patterns of influence of a set of conditions on people’s health, and also takes into account the influence of socio-economic factors. This definition was formulated by A.A. Shoshin in the early 60s. The complex of natural conditions refers to certain natural systems: landscapes, physical-geographical areas, natural zones, which represent the interconnection of natural components - relief, climate, soils, waters, vegetation, animals.

Socio-economic factors include the characteristics of people’s lives and activities, industry, agriculture, transport and communications, and the non-productive sphere. The first ideas about the influence of natural and socio-economic factors on human health began to form in ancient times, as evidenced by archaeological data, elements of medical activity reflected in the language, folk epic, as well as in works of art mentioning a variety of painful conditions and medical care for them, the surviving ancient writings (treatises). With the development of human society - the complication of the economy, the emergence of new tools, their improvement - new diseases arose and the need to provide appropriate medical care. Thus, with the development of hunting, injuries in collisions with wild animals have become more frequent; primitive care for injuries was improved - treatment of wounds, fractures, dislocations. The need for trauma care has also increased due to the wars between clans and tribes during the formation of human society. The observation of primitive people allowed them to discover the special effect of certain plants on the body (analgesic, stimulant, laxative, diaphoretic, sleeping pills, etc.), which made it possible to use them to alleviate painful conditions. Since ancient times, the sun, water, in particular mineral water, as well as physical exercise, rubbing (massage), etc. have been used among medicinal remedies.

III -Student reports on the geography of infectious diseases
Plague is an acute natural focal infectious disease caused by the plague bacillus. Refers to particularly dangerous infections. There are a number of natural foci around the globe where plague is constantly found in a small percentage of the rodents living there. Epidemics of plague among people were often caused by the migration of rats infected in natural foci. From rodents to humans, microbes are transmitted through fleas, which, in the event of mass death of animals, change their host. In addition, a possible route of infection is when hunters process the skins of killed infected animals. Fundamentally different is infection from person to person, carried out by airborne droplets. The causative agent of plague is resistant to low temperatures, preserves well in sputum, but at a temperature of +55 degrees it dies within 10-15 minutes, and when boiled - almost instantly. Enters the body through the skin, mucous membranes of the respiratory tract, digestive tract, and conjunctiva. When a person is bitten by fleas infected with plague bacteria, a swelling of the skin may form at the site of the bite. Then the process spreads through the lymphatic vessels to the lymph nodes, which leads to their sharp increase, fusion and formation of a conglomerate (bubonic form). The bubonic form of plague is characterized by the appearance of sharply painful conglomerates, most often in the inguinal lymph nodes on one side. The incubation period is 2-6 days. At the same time, an increase in other groups of lymph nodes appears - secondary buboes. The severity of the patients' condition gradually increases by the 4-5th day, the temperature may be elevated, sometimes a high fever immediately appears, but at first the condition of the patients often remains generally satisfactory. This explains the fact that a person sick with bubonic plague can fly from one part of the world to another, considering himself healthy. However, at any time, the bubonic form of plague can turn into a secondary septic or secondary pneumonic form. Septic and pneumonic forms of plague occur like any severe sepsis. The most important role in diagnosis in modern conditions is played by epidemiological anamnesis. The arrival from zones endemic for plague (Vietnam, Burma, Bolivia, Turkmenistan, Karakalpak Republic), or from anti-plague stations of a patient with the signs of the bubonic form described above or with signs of the most severe - with hemorrhages and bloody sputum - pneumonia with severe lymphadenopathy, is the first thing for a doctor contact is a sufficiently serious argument for taking all measures to localize the suspected plague and accurately diagnose it. It should be especially emphasized that in the conditions of modern drug prevention, the likelihood of illness among personnel who have been in contact with a coughing plague patient for some time is very small. Currently, there are no cases of primary pneumonic plague among medical personnel. An accurate diagnosis must be made using bacteriological studies. The material for them is the punctate of a suppurating lymph node, sputum, the patient’s blood, discharge from fistulas and ulcers.

If plague is suspected, the patient should be immediately hospitalized in an infectious diseases hospital. If possible, medical personnel wear an anti-plague suit; if not, then gauze masks, scarves, and shoe covers. All personnel immediately receive prophylactic antibiotic treatment, which continues throughout the days they spend in the isolation ward. Plague is treated with antibiotics. Under modern therapy, mortality in the bubonic form does not exceed 5-10%, but in other forms the recovery rate is quite high if treatment is started early.

Smallpox.

Ancient Indian and Chinese manuscripts bring to us descriptions of terrible epidemics of black smallpox. The sick person developed a fever, headache, general weakness, and after 3-4 days the whole body became covered with fluid-filled blisters (pockmarks). The disease lasted about two weeks, and up to 40% of patients died. Children were the most seriously ill. Those who were ill developed scars at the site of the pockmarks. Sometimes pockmarks appeared in front of the eyes, which led to blindness. Smallpox came to Europe later than to the East - in the Middle Ages. When it first entered new countries, this disease raged with particular force. In Iceland in 1707 Smallpox killed more than two-thirds of the population. In 1796 Jenner, with his method of smallpox inoculation (vaccination), marked the beginning of the fight against this disease. Smallpox is a natural acute viral disease related to quarantine infections. Characterized by fever, general intoxication and pustular rash. The causative agent belongs to the smallpox group of viruses and is well preserved when dried. The virus enters the body through the mucous membranes of the upper respiratory tract. The incubation period lasts 5-15 days. The disease begins acutely. With chills, body temperature rises. Patients are concerned about weakness, headache, pain in the lower back, sacrum, and less commonly, nausea, vomiting, and abdominal pain. The skin of the face, neck and chest is hyperemic, the vessels of the sclera are injected. A “harbinger” rash that quickly disappears may appear. On the 4th day of illness, the body temperature decreases, the patient’s well-being improves somewhat, and at the same time, an exanthema characteristic of smallpox appears. The elements of the rash are spots that turn into papules, then into vesicles and by the 7-8th day of illness into pustules. From the 14th day of illness, the pustules turn into crusts, after which they fall off, leaving scars. In vaccinated people, smallpox is mild, sometimes reminiscent of chickenpox. Chickenpox is an acute viral disease with airborne transmission, occurring mainly in childhood and characterized by a febrile state, papulovesicular rash, and a benign course. The causative agent of chickenpox belongs to the herpes group of viruses and is unstable in the external environment. Penetrates into the body through the mucous membranes of the upper respiratory tract. After the incubation period, a characteristic rash appears on the body. The incubation period lasts an average of 14 days. In 1967. The World Health Organization (WHO) has launched a campaign to eradicate smallpox worldwide. For 1967 More than 2 million people have suffered from smallpox worldwide. Human. In 1971 The last case of smallpox in America was reported in 1976. - in Asia, in 1977 - in Africa. Three years later, in 1980, WHO announced that smallpox had been completely eradicated throughout the world. Now not a single inhabitant of the planet suffers from this disease, and the smallpox pathogen continues to live in only three laboratories (in the USA, Russia, South Africa). Russian scientists from the Novosibirsk Scientific Center “Vector” have developed a new, modified version of the smallpox vaccine. This new vaccine option can protect people against both smallpox and hepatitis B at the same time.

AIDS.

What is a virus?

A virus is a tiny microorganism that can only be seen under a very powerful microscope. Viruses live inside living cells that make up all the tissues of the human body. There are billions of such cells in our body. They are grouped and perform different functions. The outer side of the cell is called the membrane. It is like the skin of a cell that protects it; inside the cell there is liquid and a nucleus. The core plays a very important role. This is a kind of mini-computer that programs and controls the life activity of a cell. When a virus enters the human body, it finds a cell that allows it in and changes the program of the cellular “computer” in it. Now, instead of functioning normally and fulfilling its duties, the cell begins to produce viruses. Such viruses can cause various diseases: influenza, measles, chickenpox. In this case, a person becomes ill for a while, but recovers quickly thanks to the immune system, which immediately fights the virus and defeats it. The human immunodeficiency virus differs from other viruses and poses a great danger precisely because it attacks the cells that are supposed to fight the virus.

How is HIV transmitted?

Fortunately, the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is transmitted from person to person only under certain conditions and much less frequently than other diseases such as influenza and chicken pox. HIV lives in blood cells and can pass from one person to another in that case , if blood contaminated (infected) with HIV enters the blood of a healthy person. To avoid becoming infected through someone else's blood, it is enough to take basic precautions where you have to deal with blood. For example, make sure that there are no cuts or abrasions on the body. Then, even if the patient’s blood accidentally gets on the skin, it will not be able to penetrate the body. So how is this unfortunate virus transmitted? Here are some real life examples. Jenny's father, Tony, was diagnosed with the HIV virus. During the operation in the hospital he had to receive a blood transfusion. As it turned out, the blood injected into him already contained the virus. Having discovered that the virus could be transmitted in this way, doctors developed a number of measures to prevent the possibility of its presence in donated blood. Now transmission of the virus through blood transfusion is almost impossible. Needles for injections should only be disposable. If they are used repeatedly, the blood of an HIV-infected person can enter the blood of a healthy person. The virus can be transmitted to a child from a sick mother. Developing in her womb, he is connected to her by the umbilical cord. Blood flows through blood vessels in both directions. If HIV is present in the mother's body, it can be transmitted to the child. In addition, there is a danger of infection of infants through mother's milk. HIV can also be transmitted through sexual contact.

Cholera

Cholera. (tropical disease). This is an acute intestinal infection caused by Vibrio cholerae, characterized by damage to the enzyme systems of the intestinal epithelium. The causative agent is Vibriocholerae. The sources of the disease are sick people and vibrio carriers. Some cholera vibrios, entering the human body with water and food, die in the acidic environment of the gastrointestinal tract. The other part enters the lumen of the small intestine, where the alkaline reaction environment and the high content of protein breakdown products contribute to their intensive reproduction. This process is accompanied by the release of a large amount of toxic substances that penetrate the epithelial cell. Acute extracellular isotonic degradation develops, and tissue metabolism is disrupted. Dehydration of the body develops. In one hour, patients can lose more than 1 liter of fluid. Blood thickening occurs, blood flow slows down, peripheral circulation is impaired, tissue hypoxia occurs; the accumulation of under-oxidized metabolic products leads to the development of hypokalemia, disruption of cardiac activity, brain function and other organs, and blood clotting processes. Susceptibility to cholera is high. The most susceptible to the disease are people with low acidity of gastric juice, suffering from gastritis, some forms of anemia and helminthic diseases. Among the tropical diseases there are helminthic diseases unique to this region: schistosomiasis, Wuchereriosis, some types of malaria and (ovale). Nowadays, there are also mental illness. For example, schizophrenia.

Is schizophrenia a disease?

Yes, it is, since a disease is a certain deviation from a statistically determined norm. Just like a decrease in hemoglobin content in the blood, that is, its change, is called anemia and is a disease. Our mental functions have certain parameters that can be measured in various ways (from psychological, neuropsychological, biochemical and others, up to electrometric). In addition, this, of course, is a disease, since it is suffering, sometimes painful, and people are looking for help. We rightfully call schizophrenia a disease, but only from a clinical, medical point of view. In the social sense, it would be incorrect to call a person suffering from this disease sick, that is, inferior. Although this disease is chronic, the forms of schizophrenia are extremely diverse and often a person who is currently in remission, that is, outside of an attack (psychosis), can be quite capable, and even more professionally productive, than his average opponents. To make all of the above more substantiated, it is necessary to talk about the essence of this disease. To begin with, a few words about the term “schizophrenia” itself. The word arose from the Greek “schizo” (“schizo”) - I split and “phren” - mind. Splitting does not mean splitting (for example, of personality), as this is often not entirely correctly understood, but disorganization, lack of harmony, inconsistency, and illogicality from the point of view of ordinary people.

Atypical pneumonia.

At the beginning of 2003 The whole world watched with intense attention the rapid spread of a new disease unknown to anyone. The danger of a new infection was beyond doubt, because... many sick people died, despite all the efforts of doctors. And among the attending physicians there were cases of the disease with a fatal outcome. In the press, this disease began to be called “SARS.” SARS is the same as Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS), or SAR. The disease spread rapidly throughout the world without any cure. This forced many journalists and medical specialists to talk about the emergence of the most dangerous disease since the discovery of the AIDS virus. The SARS epidemic is believed to have begun in Guangdong Province in China on the border with Hong Kong: February 11, 2003. There was an outbreak of unusually acute influenza, similar in manifestations and consequences to severe bilateral pneumonia. 5 sick people died. On February 20, the number of people who died from acute influenza in China reached 21. On March 11, Professor N.V. Kaverin, head of the laboratory of the Institute of Virology of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, reported that in February in Hong Kong, a patient died in whom the influenza virus of the H5N1 subtype was isolated. This is the same “Chicken Flu” with high mortality that people got here in 1997, but then they got infected from chickens, and now it looked like the infection came from a person. Experts knew nothing about the causative agent of the disease, except that it spreads very quickly and is transmitted by airborne droplets. SARS has spread beyond China; cases of the disease have been reported in Vietnam and Singapore. The area of ​​spread of the disease expanded every day: on March 15, the first cases of atypical pneumonia were announced in Europe (Germany) and North America (Canada), on March 17 in Israel, on March 18 in France. On March 16, a WHO statement was published on the final establishment of the nature of the causative agent of atypical pneumonia. The painstaking work of employees of 13 laboratories in 10 countries and genetic examination showed that the disease is caused by one of the representatives of the coronavirus groups. However, this virus has never previously been observed in the human population, which confirmed the information that the SARS virus came to humans from domestic and wild cats. It is in the southern provinces of China, where the infection began to spread, that cats are eaten. On the same day, a WHO representative at a congress of SARS virus researchers in Geneva announced that this disease is common to humans and animals. This is confirmed by experiments on monkeys: injection of the virus into them causes a disease with the same symptoms as in humans. On April 24, the first patient with atypical pneumonia was registered in Bulgaria. On the same day, the State Sanitary and Epidemiological Supervision Service of Russia for the first time distributed a memo to the population, which provides the necessary information about SARS. On May 8, the Russian Ministry of Health announced the first case of atypical pneumonia: in Blagoveshchensk, a 25-year-old man who lived in a Chinese dormitory had two out of five indicators of atypical pneumonia, but for another month there was debate about whether he had typical or atypical pneumonia.

Bird flu

Influenza A viruses can infect several species of animals, including birds, pigs, horses, seals and whales. Influenza viruses that infect birds are called "avian influenza viruses." Avian influenza virus is not usually transmitted directly to humans from birds and does not circulate among humans. Birds play a special role because all hemagglutinin subtypes are found in wild birds, which are considered the natural hosts of the influenza A virus. However, only three hemagglutinin subtypes (H1, H2 and H3) and two types of neuraminidase (N1 and N2) circulate widely among humans. Avian influenza does not usually cause disease in wild birds, but causes severe illness and death in poultry. Avian influenza viruses generally do not infect humans, but there have been cases of illness and even death in humans during outbreaks in 1997-1999 and 2003-2004. Apparently, humans are the final link in the transmission of the avian influenza virus, because There are still no recorded cases of human-to-human transmission of this virus.

A study of the lineages of influenza viruses in different avian species showed that avian influenza viruses in Eurasia and the Americas evolved independently. Thus, migration between these two continents (latitudinal migration) plays virtually no role in influenza virus transmission, while birds migrating along longitude appear to make a critical contribution to the ongoing process of influenza virus evolution.

Four main migration routes for long-distance migratory birds, especially plovers, cross Russian territory (listed from west to east):

East African-Eurasian

Central Asian-Indian

East Asian-Australian

Western Pacific

The Central Asian-Indian and East Asian-Australian migration routes are of greatest importance for Russia, since they include flights from Siberia via Kyrgyzstan to Malaysia via Hong Kong and to China via Western Siberia.

Conclusion.

Medical geography is a complex science. Therefore, it is closely related to many related sciences. One of them is ecology. A distinctive feature of the high-tech twentieth century is public interest in environmental problems. The issue of nature conservation acquired particular relevance in the last decades of the last century, when the connection between the increase in morbidity and the state of the environment became obvious. In the early 1970s, a powerful green movement emerged in Western Europe, which remains active to this day. Young Germans, French, Austrians, and Danes united in the fight against environmental pollution, the harmful consequences of nuclear energy development, for the reduction of military budgets and the democratization of public life. By revealing the truth about the threat of environmental disaster, the “greens” encourage people to reduce their consumption of natural resources, which can ultimately reduce the generation of industrial waste. Progress has always been associated with increased consumption of material goods. European countries have long passed the stage of reckless accumulation of wealth and are already close to becoming a society with a moderate consumer culture. Unfortunately, this cannot be said about developing countries, which include Russia. To get closer to the consumption standards of developed countries, it is necessary to increase the use of raw materials and energy. According to scientists, under existing conditions the planet will not withstand the load, and an environmental catastrophe will become inevitable. The restructuring of economic policy towards rational environmental management in the West began in the 1980s, but changing the consumer orientation of society turned out to be much more difficult. In the absence of waste-free industries, developing countries are unable to recycle more than 10% of household and industrial waste. Moreover, even such a small part of waste is destroyed without proper compliance with sanitary standards. According to WHO, approximately a third of the world's population does not have minimum sanitation conditions. This refers to cramped housing, lack of hot water supply, and often a lack of clean drinking water; for example, residents of many regions of Transcaucasia, Central and South Asia use muddy water from mountain rivers for all their needs, being potential sources of large-scale epidemics. Approximately half of the urban population in underdeveloped countries is not provided with adequate waste disposal facilities. According to statistics, more than 5 million people on Earth die every year from diseases associated with environmental pollution. The past century has left a legacy of industrial diseases to the new century. For example, Minamata disease is caused by mercury poisoning. Yusho-Yu-Cheng disease, first noted in industrial areas of Southeast Asia, is a liver injury caused by dioxin. In 1976 In one of the Italian cities, hundreds of people were poisoned by dioxin as a result of violation of the rules for the disposal of chemical waste. In the western part of Kazakhstan, asbestosis is widespread - the destruction of the lungs by asbestos dust; Phosphorus-manganese intoxication, called Kashin-Beck disease, is “popular” in the Semipalatinsk region. The tragedy of the century is the accident at the nuclear power plant in Chernobyl, which immediately took the lives of thousands of people and continues to kill offspring through irradiated parents and a radioactive ecological system. Experts warn that the process of restoring the lost natural balance exceeds the capabilities of available technical means. In their opinion, natural ecosystems are much more complex than human civilization. Even their partial destruction can disrupt the flows of information that control the normal functioning and sustainable development of the biosphere. Thus, environmental problems have long gone beyond the scope of medicine, economics and politics, becoming a philosophical phenomenon. Issues of saving the environment today are considered by representatives of various fields of knowledge, who agree that the victory of the human mind will be the main achievement of the 21st century. As mentioned above, medicine as a science does not stand still, but moves forward. And I hope that I can take part in the development of vaccines and treatments for the terrible diseases of the new century: AIDS, SARS, Bird Flu. And also in improving treatment and prevention I already know which diseases have been inherited by humanity since ancient times.

The problem of maintaining public health is especially relevant in modern society, characterized by negative characteristics of the main demographic indicators along with the progressive spread of alcoholism, drug abuse and sexually transmitted diseases.

The health status of young people, children and adolescents is of particular concern. Absolutely healthy, harmoniously developed children – no more than 2–3%. Another 14–15% of children are practically healthy, and 35–40% have various chronic diseases. At least half of children have some kind of functional abnormality. Data from medical examinations indicate that during the period of schooling, children’s health deteriorates 4–5 times. Thus, by the time they graduate from high school, every fourth graduate has a pathology of the cardiovascular system, and every third has myopia and poor posture.

Child traumatism occupies a special place among school pathologies. The most common injuries among students are traumatic brain injuries, fractures of limb bones, wounds, dislocations, sprains, and bruises. The majority of such injuries (up to 60%) occur outside of school hours: during breaks at school and during games - in the yard, on the sports ground, on the street. Road traffic injuries pose a serious threat to the health of children, the frequency of which is increasing year by year. A particularly large number of injuries occur during middle school age.

As numerous studies have shown, the state of human health most of all depends on the person himself. Ignorance of the rules of safe behavior, non-compliance with a healthy lifestyle, and a careless attitude towards one’s health are the reasons for the high level of injuries, the emergence of various diseases, and the deterioration of the health of young people.

In modern medicine, health and illness are not opposed to each other, but are considered in close relationship. It has been established that by “norm” one should not always mean complete health, and by non-compliance with the norm one should mean not only pathology, but also a number of borderline states between health and disease.

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), “health is a state of physical, mental and social well-being that is not limited to the absence of disease.” This is “a state of the human body when the functions of all its organs and systems are balanced with the external environment and there are no painful changes.”

Distinguish individual(human) health and collective health (family, professional group, social class, population). Human health has long become not only a personal problem, but also a criterion for life in various countries of the world.

The main indicators of the convenience and prosperity of human life are:

♦ the state of the healthcare system;

♦ sanitary conditions and environment;

♦ percentage of malnourished young children;

♦ attitude towards women in society;

♦ level of literacy of the population;

♦ organization of obstetric care.

Economic growth, national gross product, and the use of modern technologies cannot guarantee the well-being of a nation, since they are accompanied by a widening gap between rich and poor, growing social tension, terrorism and military conflicts.

Population health is also determined by social factors:

♦ protection of the population (political, legal, juridical);

♦ realization of the rights to work, education, healthcare, recreation, information, etc.;

♦ nature of nutrition (its sufficiency and completeness);

♦ real wage and working conditions;

♦ living conditions, etc.

The concept of health is defined in accordance with the main functions performed by a person. What are these functions?

Man is a qualitatively new, highest level of life on Earth, a subject of socio-historical activity and culture. Man is gifted with conceptual thinking, reason, free will and verbal speech. Man is a living system, which is based on an inextricable connection: physical and spiritual, natural and social, hereditary and acquired principles.

Individual health can be defined as the ability of interconnected functional structures of the body to ensure the implementation of hereditary programs and reproductive functions, mental abilities and creative activity.

Full health– a state of the body, characterized by a state of dynamic balance between the functions of its systems and organs and environmental factors. The concept of health includes the biological and social characteristics of a person and the assessment of his functional reserves, allowing the body to adapt to various environmental conditions.

The most important indicator of health is not only physical indicators, but also the ability to exist comfortably in society, the ability to communicate (socialization), and the ability to perceive and assimilate information. Studying functional state organism, its level adaptation allows you to monitor health in the dynamics of development, determining the degree of risk of disease and identifying alarming symptoms of ontogenesis. There are four options for the functional state of the human body:

♦ satisfactory adaptation to environmental conditions;

♦ tension of adaptation mechanisms;

♦ insufficient, unsatisfactory adaptation;

♦ failure of adaptation.

The level of physiological adaptation varies within the same age group, as does the ability to compensate for external influences by turning on reserve functions. The wider the range adaptive reactions, the better adapted the body is. The organic range of adaptive reactions and the inability to maintain normal life activities are manifested by an increased risk of morbidity.

Modern society is interested in improving the level of both individual health and collective health. It is becoming increasingly important valeology- the doctrine of health, opposed to the medicine of diseases, but, in essence, based on the principles of preventive medicine. The main task of valeology is to increase the health potential of the population by preventing morbidity and disability.

It should be noted that the ultimate goals of disease medicine and valeology are the same - health. However, disease medicine seeks to study and recognize possible diseases and injuries, and then, by treating them, restore a person to health.

The study of health, or valeology, focuses on the probable risk of diseases, early signs of borderline conditions, their stability or limited time of manifestation.

An important task of valeology is the construction of positive guidelines, the laying of attitudes towards the value of health and human life, the formation of accessible and intelligible motivation for a healthy lifestyle.

The state of health depends more than 50% on individual lifestyle, and on the influence of environmental factors - by 25%. This indicates that the reserve for preserving human health lies in the organization of his lifestyle, which depends on valeological culture.

Concept valeological culture includes:

♦ an individual’s knowledge of the genetic, physiological, psychological capabilities of his body;

♦ knowledge of methods and means of monitoring and maintaining one’s psychophysiological status and promoting health;

♦ the ability to disseminate valeological knowledge to one’s surroundings and to the social environment as a whole.

Lifestyle also depends on hereditary and acquired conditions, disruptions in the functioning of adaptive and protective mechanisms, ecology, and valeological education.

The cause of many diseases is increasingly becoming physical inactivity, psycho-emotional stress, and information oversaturation. Maintaining health is largely the result of safe living. Every person is obliged to know and comply with the principles of safety, the consequences of exposure to traumatic and harmful factors, must anticipate danger and be able to avoid it or mitigate the negative effect.

One of the main tasks of the school course Basics of life safety consists of creating motivation for a healthy lifestyle in students and developing an individual way of valeologically based safe behavior.

A healthy lifestyle is a person’s behavior aimed at maintaining and strengthening health, promoting a full, meaningful, successful life in which a person could fully discover and realize his abilities and capabilities.

“Health is not everything, but everything without health is nothing,” said Socrates. Only a healthy person has a feeling of fullness of life.

A healthy lifestyle is a lifestyle that fosters a harmoniously developed personality, helping to endure life’s adversities, mental and physical stress, including natural, social and personal.

Demographic problems are directly related to the problems of maintaining health. The growth of the Earth's population is subject to certain patterns. Thus, demographers note that with a low level of industrial development, the birth and death rates are quite high, as a result of which the population is growing slowly. In a highly developed industrial society, the birth rate decreases and the rate of population growth also decreases. At the same time, in highly developed countries, mortality is decreasing and life expectancy is increasing, which leads to an increase in population. Thus, the average life expectancy in some countries is over 80 years (Andorra, Macau, Japan, Australia, etc.).

In modern Russia, there has been a particularly unfavorable dynamics of demographic indicators over the past 15 years. During this time, the population of Russia decreased from 150 million to 143 million people, the birth rate decreased and the mortality rate increased. According to experts, the population of the Russian Federation will be 137 million people by 2015, and less than 100 million people by 2050. The average life expectancy in our country is 67 years: for women – 71 years, for men – 60 years. This large difference may be explained by the prevalence of unhealthy lifestyle habits among men. The main causes of death in our country remain cardiovascular and oncological diseases, injuries and accidents, which is a consequence of an unhealthy lifestyle and substance abuse - alcohol, tobacco, drugs.

To solve demographic problems, state policy is of particular importance - the implementation of programs aimed at creating favorable social and natural living conditions for the population. The most vulnerable segments of the population – young families, orphans, single mothers, etc. – should receive special state support.