Essay on the topic Spiritual culture.

Answers:

Spiritual culture is a system of knowledge and ideological ideas inherent in a specific cultural and historical unity or humanity as a whole. The concept of “spiritual culture” goes back to the historical and philosophical ideas of the German philosopher, linguist and statesman Wilhelm von Humboldt. According to the theory of historical knowledge he developed, world history is the result of the activity of a spiritual force that lies beyond the boundaries of knowledge, which manifests itself through the creative abilities and personal efforts of individual individuals. The fruits of this co-creation constitute the spiritual culture of humanity. Spiritual culture arises due to the fact that a person does not limit himself only to sensory-external experience and does not assign primary importance to it, but recognizes the spiritual experience from which he lives, loves, believes and evaluates all things as the main and guiding one. With this internal spiritual experience, a person determines the meaning and highest goal of external, sensory experience. Spiritual culture is a sphere of human activity, covering various aspects of the spiritual life of a person and society. Spiritual culture includes forms of social consciousness and their embodiment in literary, architectural and other monuments of human activity.

I'll raise the issue spiritual life of society. What is it? What is it and what does it include? And do we need spirituality at all?

These questions go back centuries. Plato himself (an ancient Greek philosopher) wondered what human spirituality is, or rather, what spirit is. So the philosopher determined that the spirit is a kind of independent and ideal principle that supports the whole world. This idea was later reflected by Christians who used the definition of the ideal beginning in their religion. Their ideal beginning is God. Subsequently, scholastics and apologists tried to explain this situation from the point of view of logic. But they never succeeded and had to perceive the ideality of the divine principle as a given, which nothing can shake: neither space nor time.

But in the 17th century, the foundations changed and a “revolution of the spirit” took place. In this century it was argued that it is reason that rules the world. It’s true how much humanity has achieved thanks to its intelligence. Industry, science, politics and law flourished, but no one wanted to think about where such the power of our mind came from. And only later, in the times of Hegel, Marx and Kant, they began to think about this and answer pressing questions about the possibilities and manifestations of the human mind. And then non-classical philosophy appeared. Which absolutely did not want to recognize humanity’s faith in a rationally constructed world. This philosophy “worshipped” only irrationalism.

Consider spirituality of public life it is necessary from both sides, since the nature of man himself is dual. This is both the material and spiritual world.

This is a sphere of social life that determines the specifics of a given society. It includes the moral, cognitive and aesthetic principles, which form morality, science, religion, creativity and art. Thanks to them, three main personality ideals are formed, which a person strives for throughout his life. The first ideal is truth. It reflects the reality of this world as a certain subject sees it outside and independently of consciousness. The next ideal is good. An ideal to which we are taught from childhood. This is something good that evokes bright and positive feelings in a person. Goodness itself is an evaluative concept that denotes a positive aspect of human activity. The next ideal is beauty. This is one of the most important categories of culture. It is beauty that gives us aesthetic satisfaction. Satisfaction not only for the eyes, but also for the ears. A person's spirituality is his true wealth. Many values ​​develop over generations and are passed on from one era to another. And a person, using his knowledge and upbringing, can also be guided by the values ​​of his ancestors. This helps a lot in life. Especially if parents instruct the child from childhood and accustom him to generally accepted norms.

It is through spirituality that a person understands the world around him, and also himself. Human spirituality is the predominance of intellect and morality over material benefits. When a person wants to develop himself above all else. He always asks questions and seeks answers to them. He works on himself with great dedication. He understands that he is responsible for his thoughts and actions. With wild interest, such a person reflects on the values ​​of life and asks the following question: what is the meaning of life. And you know, it doesn’t matter whether this person finds the answer and whether it is correct. All that matters is that he has already asked this question.

Let's look at the problems in this area of ​​philosophy. If a person does not know enough about the world and himself, he will not be able to become a truly spiritual person and will not be able to create according to all the canons of spirituality: beauty, kindness and truth. And this means that the person is lost. Such a person will be incomprehensible both to society and to himself.

The problem of spirituality lies not only in defining and understanding oneself, but also in overcoming one’s “yesterday” self. A person must overcome life's difficulties without losing his life beliefs and values. Achieve your goals, realize them throughout your life. The basis of personal self-determination is such a quality as conscience. It is one of the main criteria of morality, which determines the measure and quality of a person’s cultural spirituality.

One of the important terms of the spirituality of society is social consciousness. This is a set of views and ideas of an individual or group of people, which can be directed towards any object. We understand that each person will have his own consciousness, since everyone has a different vision of this world and everyone, thus, forms their own opinion. There are also several levels of consciousness. This happens because consciousnesses are formed in different areas of our lives. This is how we can consider everyday consciousness. The kind of consciousness that shapes our everyday skills. It is like experience accumulated over the years. Can be passed down through generations. For example, traditions and customs.

The next consciousness is moral, or it is also called ethical. It is this that lays down the generally accepted norms.

Religious consciousness determines the affiliation of a person or group of people to a particular faith/religion.

Political consciousness is expressed by a person as his views and beliefs on politics in the country, the world and determines his belonging to a certain social group, nations.

Aesthetic consciousness helps us perceive all the beauties of this world and determine what is beautiful and what is not.

Scientific consciousness is a consciousness that helps us understand ourselves and the world around us including nature using scientific methods.

And finally, philosophical consciousness, which studies our thinking and asks the question: is it even possible to know this world and how?

People's consciousnesses can be similar or different depending on various factors: age, gender, nationality, social status and religion. And if people are similar in their beliefs or views on this world, then interpersonal communication begins, groups of people with similar interests and views are created.

Let us conclude that spirituality is an integral part of both the individual and the entire society as a whole. Spirituality defines our most important qualities. Our upbringing. It is spirituality that determines our values, our goals in life, with which we go through life. Thanks to them, we become individuals and achieve certain goals in life, which contributes to our growth and the growth of society. Spirituality teaches us to see beauty in this world and act according to our conscience and kindness. And what kindness, beauty and truth mean, everyone decides for themselves. It is also thanks to spiritual consciousness that interpersonal relationships are established.

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Spiritual culture of the individual and society.

Science and education in modern world.

Levels and methods of scientific knowledge.

Education and its significance for the individual and society.

Legal regulation of education in the Russian Federation. Rights and obligations of participants educational process.

Morality, art and religion as elements of spiritual culture.

Moral choice and moral self-control of the individual.

Art and its role in people's lives.

Types of arts

Religion and its role in the life of society.

World religions.

Religion and church in the modern world. Religious associations in Russia. Freedom of conscience.

Lectures on the topic: Human spiritual cultureand society

1. Spiritual culture of the individual and society

The concept and features of modern spiritual culture
The number of definitions of the concept “culture” in science is extremely large, and each of them in its own way reflects the multidimensional nature of culture. This word goes back to Latin culture, meaning “cultivation”, “processing”. We often use this term in different senses. For example, ancient culture, culture of communication, object of culture, cultured person, etc. The diversity of cultural concepts can be expressed in three senses:
- in a broad sense culture - is a complex of constantly updated forms, principles, methods and results of active creative activity all people in all spheres of public life; it is everything that is created by the hands and mind of man. Culture in this sense is opposed to nature. Nature is what exists independently of humans, what is natural. Culture is something created by man. Examples of culture in this sense: ancient culture, Roman culture, modern culture;
- in a narrow sense - a process of active creative activity, during which spiritual values ​​are created, transmitted, and consumed. In this sense, the concept of “culture” practically coincides with the concept of “art”. Examples of culture in the narrow sense: culture of dance, culture of singing folk songs;
— in the narrowest sense, culture is a set of norms that determine human behavior; the degree of education of a person. They usually say that if a person is well brought up, then he is cultured and has culture.
Since activity is divided into material and spiritual, and culture in a broad and narrow sense is directly related to activity, then culture can be divided into material and spiritual. Material items include household items, means of labor, etc. For the spiritual - poems, fairy tales, etc. It should be borne in mind that this division is very arbitrary. There are many objects and phenomena that can at first glance be classified as objects of both material and spiritual culture. For example, a book. She is material. But the book contains an object of the spiritual world - text. IN in this case belonging to a culture can be determined by which element of the cultural object is the main one. In a book, of course, it is text, not cover and sheets of paper. Therefore, it should be understood as an object of spiritual culture.
The functions of culture are diverse and it is unlikely that it will ever be possible to compile them full list. Let us highlight the main functions of culture:
- cognitive - culture helps the study of society, people, country;
- evaluative - culture helps to evaluate the phenomena of reality, differentiates (distinguishes) values, enriches traditions;
- regulatory - culture forms norms and rules governing the behavior of a person as a member of society;
- informative - culture transmits knowledge, values, experience of previous generations and helps to exchange them;
- communicative - culture develops a person through communication, during which cultural values ​​are preserved, transmitted and replicated;
- socialization function - culture is the most important means of socialization, since it accustoms the individual to social roles and the desire for self-improvement.
Scientists distinguish three forms of culture: folk, elite, mass. They are all closely interconnected and influence each other. Let's look at each of them.
Folk culture includes creations most often created by amateurs (non-professionals) who remain anonymous. The elements of this culture are simple in content and at the same time have artistic beauty, originality, and are designed for a wide audience. Folk culture includes, for example, folk tales, legends, well-known jokes, and folk songs.
Elite culture involves the creation by professionals of such creations that are inaccessible to the common public. Understanding them requires education and certain preparation. Elite culture is aimed more at expressing meanings than at external effects. Examples of creations of elite culture: an opera work, organ music, a highly artistic film with complex content, a ballet.
A distinctive feature of mass culture (as opposed to elitist and folk culture) is its commercial orientation. The objects of this culture are standard, easy to understand, designed for a mass audience, can emphasize the base needs of a person, and are sometimes aimed at shocking the public. Objects of mass culture are quickly replicated, which is why their artistic originality and taste are lost. Objects of mass culture include, for example, pop music, kitsch, and club culture.
Mass culture is a historically recent phenomenon. The prerequisites for the formation of this culture arose in the 18th-19th centuries, but it developed in the 20th century. This was facilitated by the rapid development of means of replication and dissemination of mass culture - television, the Internet, sound recording equipment, etc. Today mass culture is an integral part of our lives. The influence of this culture on modern society contradictory. The positive influence is that mass culture helps to understand the world, socialize people, it is democratic, and its objects can be used by almost everyone; this culture is addressed to the needs and aspirations of people. Negative influence due to the fact that mass culture as a whole impoverishes the culture of the country and people, lowering the general level of the spiritual life of society; it is designed for passive consumption, impoverishes people’s tastes, for some it replaces real life, and imposes certain preferences and ideas that do not always correspond to the spirituality of the people.
The culture of any people or nation is very heterogeneous. Usually it includes:
- subculture - part of the general culture of a people, a nation, a system of values ​​inherent in a social group. For example, youth, male, professional, criminal subcultures. All these subcultures are distinguished by features specific to them. For example, the distinctive features of the youth subculture are a focus on conspicuous consumption, self-searching and bold experiments, democratic behavior, etc.;
- counterculture - a direction in the development of modern culture that opposes the foundations of the spiritual life of the people, the “official” culture, and traditional subcultures. An example of counterculture: traditions and values ​​of skinheads and punks. Counterculture tries to break the established values ​​of national culture.
In modern times, the development of cultures different nations has become non-linear and often unpredictable. Thus, the dialogue of cultures—the interaction of cultures of different nations—has intensified. This leads to the enrichment of cultures due to their mutual influence on each other. At the same time, the rapid development of mass culture led to a spiritual crisis, blurring of ideals and moral guidelines, especially in youth environment. Mass culture often instills false values ​​of “freedom from,” social protest, etc. In this regard, etiquette—a set of patterns of correct behavior that everyone needs to learn—becomes important. young man. Etiquette gives stability to social interactions.
The most important role in preserving cultural norms, traditions, and folk etiquette belongs to cultural institutions - museums, theaters, libraries. The state finances these institutions by providing state guarantees of freedom of access to cultural property. Thus, the use of library collections is in most cases free for everyone. Students are often given free entry to museums.
Interesting Facts. In the culture of every nation, subcultures can be distinguished. Sometimes they are destructive (i.e. destructive, illegal) in nature, such as skinheads. At the same time, there are many subcultures that are only outwardly very different from generally accepted examples. They often contain elements of buffoonery. For example, in Mexican culture there is a subculture of guacheros. Her followers wear
boots with long narrow toes. And a subculture appeared thanks to popular tribal music, which, according to tradition, could only be danced to in similar shoes. People began to compete with each other in the length of their shoe toes. Today, representatives of the guachero subculture wear shoes with tightly curled, very long toes.
In the 1960-1970s. In the world, including in the USSR, the youth subculture of the Beatles arose and became popular. The Beatles are an English musical group of the 60s. XX century, which appeared in Liverpool, in which 4 people took part, playing rock and roll. Fans wore T-shirts with images of the band members and tried to dress like the Beatles.

2. Science and education in the modern world

2.2.1. Science and scientific thinking
The science - part of the modern spiritual sphere of society. It is usually understood in three ways. So science is:
1) a social institution, represented by special institutions (academies of sciences, research institutes, etc.) producing new scientific knowledge;
2) a branch of spiritual activity aimed at obtaining new knowledge for society (research, experimental and design developments, scientific research, etc.);
3) a special system of knowledge (for example, biology, chemistry). Science is divided into several branches:
— natural sciences — natural sciences: biology, chemistry, ecology, etc.;
- sciences about man and society - humanities and social sciences: anthropology (philosophical science about the essence of man), ethics (the science of good and evil, proper and improper behavior), aesthetics (the science of beauty, the standards of beauty), history, philology and etc.;
- science of technology - technical sciences: mechanics, metallurgy, etc.;
sciences about numerical patterns - mathematical sciences: algebra, geometry, etc.
Science is a theoretical phenomenon. At the same time, it is connected with practice. According to the degree of connection with practice, the following sciences can be distinguished:
- fundamental - they lack a direct orientation to practice. Fundamental sciences study the most abstract patterns. Examples of such sciences are mathematics, anthropology, history, etc.;
— applied — sciences directly aimed at practice, solving industrial and social problems. Applied sciences include mechanics, metallurgy, economics, etc.
Science performs a number of functions. Let us highlight the main functions of science:
- cognitive - science carries out knowledge of the world, searches and explains the laws of its development;
- predictive - science, based on research of the present, tries to present a picture of the future;
— social — science helps society;
— material and production — science, through the introduction of the latest achievements developed by scientists, develops the production sector;
— worldview — science influences the formation of a worldview, helping a person not only explain known to man knowledge about the world, but also to build it into a system.
Sometimes it is difficult to determine the function of science in any example. After all, for example, while working on the problems of developing a new material for building roads, a scientist both learns new things and tries to help society. It is important to understand that the function is determined by the main goal of the scientist’s activity in the example. In this case, the main thing for a scientist is to try to help society. This means that the function of science is social. But if an astronomer, studying a map of the movement of celestial bodies, tries to predict the development of the Universe millions of years in advance, then science in this case performs a predictive function. For the main goal of science in this case is to make a forecast. If a historian-scientist studies the history of the military campaigns of Ivan the Terrible, then in this case the main function of science is cognitive.
Science is a complex element of spiritual culture, developing in a contradictory way. For a long time, scientists believed that science develops evolutionarily - smoothly, gradually, due to the increase in knowledge. American philosopher T. Kuhn in the middle of the 20th century. put forward a different theory of the development of scientific knowledge - as a spasmodic, revolutionary process, manifested in the form of a periodic change of scientific paradigms. A paradigm is a major scientific discovery that changes the vector of development of science and is a model for setting and solving scientific problems for a certain time in advance.
For example, the modern paradigm of science is nanotechnology.
A change in scientific paradigms is a scientific revolution. It overturns the fundamental principles of science. For example, in the Middle Ages it was believed that the Sun moved around the Earth. At the same time, Nicolaus Copernicus changed the scientific paradigm by proving that the Earth revolves around the Sun. This discovery overturned many scientific principles that had previously been considered irrefutable.
Scientific knowledge is heterogeneous. Some scientific knowledge has been absolutely proven; for another part, scientists are trying to derive proof, etc. Scientific knowledge is usually expressed in the following forms:
— hypothesis - an assumption based on intuition, scientific laws that indirectly affect the research problem, facts known to science. For example, a scientist collected many facts about how a flowering plant develops. Based on the initial review of the data, he put forward a hypothesis - most flowering plants need sunlight;
— pattern - a connection established by science between two or more phenomena or facts. A scientific pattern can be considered the connection between the revolution and the decline in the level of economic development in the country: the overthrow of power more often leads to instability of economic development;
— scientific law - a scientifically proven pattern, an objective, significant, repeating, stable connection between phenomena, facts, processes. For example, a scientific law - the arrival of a cyclone causes rain and cloudy weather;
— theory - the most developed form of scientific knowledge, holistically reflecting natural and significant connections in a certain area of ​​reality. A scientific theory includes a number of scientific laws. For example, a scientific theory is A. Einstein’s theory of relativity, which includes many concepts, provisions, and laws.
Interesting Facts. For a long time, all sciences developed within the framework of philosophy. For example, Pythagoras, known for his research in geometry, was primarily a philosopher.
As philosophical knowledge developed, private sciences began to separate from it. Mathematics and medicine were among the first to stand out. Later, already in the modern era, the humanities gradually emerged. One of the last, about three decades ago, to acquire its own field of study was the science of culture—cultural studies.
If earlier special sciences looked for their own area of ​​research and studied specific problems, today interdisciplinary research is becoming the most popular, i.e. research at the intersection of sciences.

Levels and methods of scientific knowledge

In scientific knowledge, and sometimes in some other types of knowledge, the following levels are distinguished:
— empirical — presupposes the goal of collecting, describing, highlighting individual facts, recording them in order to later, at a theoretical level, obtain conclusions;
- theoretical - aims to generalize collected facts, explore them, establish patterns between them and gain new knowledge, draw conclusions.
Example: a biologist studies the dependence of tree height on climate. He suggests that in areas with a warm climate, trees are, on average, taller. To prove this, the scientist went to the southern regions, measured the height of 1000 trees, and wrote them down in a notebook. This was the empirical level of knowledge. Next, already in the laboratory, the biologist calculated the average height of trees in different areas, compared, and obtained evidence for the hypothesis - an assumption that he had made earlier. This was the theoretical level of scientific knowledge.
An empirical level of knowledge without a theoretical one is possible, but it does not make sense - the scientist will only collect a description of individual facts and will not be able to obtain any new knowledge. The theoretical level without the empirical level is in principle impossible - there will be no set of facts from which new knowledge can be derived.
A scientist carrying out scientific knowledge uses special methods. The result of the research depends on the accuracy and literacy of their application - what truth will be obtained and how accurate the knowledge will be. The method of scientific knowledge is a developed, justified set of research techniques that allows one to obtain new scientific knowledge. Let us highlight the main methods of scientific knowledge.
1. Methods of the empirical level of knowledge:
- observation - purposeful and organized perception of the object of study, the dynamics of its changes without influencing it;
— experiment — study of an object or process by purposefully influencing it in natural or laboratory conditions;
— questionnaire — mass written survey;
- interviewing - an oral conversation with a participant in an event, an eyewitness, etc.
2. Theoretical level methods:
- analysis - the process of mental or real splitting of an object of study into its simplest components;
- synthesis - the opposite of analysis, the process of mental or real reunification, combining parts into a whole;
— abstraction — mental distraction from properties or characteristics of the object of study that are unimportant for the researcher, highlighting the main thing;
- modeling - reproducing individual characteristics of one object on another, creating mental or real copies of the object of study - models;
- classification - a method of distributing objects of study into groups in accordance with any criterion;
- induction - generalization, obtaining new general knowledge based on already known particular premises;
— deduction — obtaining new private knowledge based on already proven general laws and theories.
For example, a sociologist studies the dynamics (changes) in the attitude of Russians to current social problems. At the empirical level, he can create a questionnaire and conduct a survey. It will also be effective to use observation in in social networks, on the street during public events. A sociologist can also use the interview method and conduct a conversation with residents about their attitude to the issue under discussion. All these methods will help the scientist collect the necessary facts for further theoretical study.
At the theoretical level, a sociologist can apply many methods. Leading among them is analysis. The problem of the attitude of Russians to pressing social problems is multifaceted and involves an assessment of a number of economic and political factors, including the standard of living of the population, unemployment, rising prices, etc. The sociologist will highlight these aspects, decompose the problem being studied into separate components, i.e. will carry out the analysis. Having studied all these aspects, he will carry out a synthesis. It is also possible to use the abstraction method. When studying a problem, a sociologist may well distract himself from everyday problems that his respondents (those whom he interviewed or questioned) focused on. Any research also involves induction and deduction.
The use of scientific research methods is the key to a scientist’s success and the basis for the accuracy of the knowledge he receives. A scientist is free to set goals for scientific research and choose methods for obtaining new knowledge. However, this does not mean the ability to freely interpret scientific truths. Freedom of scientific research presupposes the responsibility of the scientist for his discoveries. The relevance of such responsibility of a scientist to society in Lately sharply increased due to the ambiguity of the consequences of scientific discoveries. For example, the discovery of nuclear energy contributed to the rapid development of the electric power industry and the emergence of new, cheaper and more efficient energy sources. At the same time, strict control over nuclear energy is necessary. A series of fatal errors in the management of a nuclear facility in 1986 led to an explosion at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant. In addition, nuclear technologies have increased the vulnerability of the world order - they began to be used for military purposes in the development of weapons of mass destruction.
Several years ago, scientists discussed the consequences of the launch of the Large Hadron Collider. With its help it was supposed to obtain antimatter. At the same time, some physicists expressed ideas that antimatter could begin to absorb matter, thereby expanding. In these experiments, the social responsibility of scientists is enormous.
Interesting Facts. The number of possible research methods in science is extremely large. The textbook covers only the most important ones. An interesting research method in sociology, which is successfully used in other sciences, is content analysis, proposed by the French journalist J. Kaiser.
This method aims to calculate the frequency of mentions of something. For example, a researcher set out to study the popularity of politicians before elections. He can rank candidates based on their mentions in the press, the Internet, etc.
Content analysis is divided into two main types: quantitative (calculating the frequency of citations without analyzing the context, i.e. assessing a person or fact when mentioned) and qualitative (calculating the number of positive and negative mentions).

Education and its importance for the individual and society

Education is the most important component of the spiritual culture of society. It is usually understood in several senses:
1) a set of systematized knowledge, abilities, skills, competencies acquired by a person independently or in the process of studying in specially created educational institutions, as a rule, confirmed by documents (certificate, diploma, etc.). We can say: “A person has a secondary (higher) education,” using the term being studied in this sense;
2) a purposeful process of training and education carried out in specially created educational institutions. Using the term “education” in this sense, we can say: “The process of education is carried out in school”;
3) a social institution, represented by educational institutions, designed to prepare and include people in various spheres of society, introducing them to the culture of a given society, transferring to them social experience previous generations. This social institution can include, for example, a school.
Education performs a variety of functions, among which the main ones can be identified:
— cultural — dissemination of culture in society, transmission of cultural achievements to new generations;
— social — helping individuals achieve new statuses. Education is the most important channel of social mobility, a means of obtaining new statuses. Having received an education, it is easier for a person to obtain a new status;
- educational - the formation of value systems and life ideals among representatives of the younger generation; education of students;
— economic — formation of the social and professional structure of society, development of professional economic communities, assistance in economic development through the transfer of professional knowledge, etc.
Since September 1, 2013, a new law “On Education in the Russian Federation” has been in force in Russia. He changed the national education system. From now on, the education system includes:
1) federal state educational standards and federal state requirements, educational standards, educational programs various types, level and (or) focus;
2) organizations carrying out educational activities, teaching staff, students and parents (legal representatives) of minor students;
3) federal government bodies and government bodies of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation that carry out public administration in the field of education, and local government bodies that carry out management in the field of education, advisory, advisory and other bodies created by them;
4) organizations providing educational activities, assessing the quality of education;
5) associations of legal entities, employers and their associations, public associations operating in the field of education.
The law establishes the levels of education and the corresponding educational institutions:
- preschool ( kindergarten or special educational institutions for children);
primary general (4 classes of secondary school);
— basic general (9 school grades);
— general secondary (full course of secondary school);
— secondary vocational (vocational schools, technical schools, colleges);
- higher education - bachelor's degree (as a rule, the full course is 4 years at an institute, academy, university);
- higher education - specialty, master's degree (usually 5 years for a specialty or 2 years in addition to a bachelor's degree for a master's degree at an institute, academy, university);
- higher education - training of highly qualified personnel (postgraduate studies, residency for doctors at universities, scientific institutions).
In addition to those mentioned, our country has a whole network of additional education institutions - business schools, language schools, theater schools, music schools, courses, etc.
Education is a dynamic social institution that changes in accordance with the requirements of the time. Trends in the development of education can be identified:
— humanization of education — increasing the attention of educational institutions, their administration and teachers, teachers to the personality of students, their needs and interests. Humanization can manifest itself in the prohibition of unfair punishments, the individualization of education, the creation of special conditions for people with disabilities, the expansion of the network of various educational institutions, etc.;
— humanitarization of education — increasing the role of humanitarian and social items(history, law, political science, cultural studies, economics, sociology, etc.) in the educational process of schools, universities, allocating more hours to their study in the curriculum;
— democratization of education—expanding the rights and freedoms of educational institutions, teachers and students, increasing the accessibility of education, including for the lower classes of society;
— computerization of education — expanding the scope of application of the latest computer technologies in the educational process. For example, many schools today use not only educational computer programs, but also interactive whiteboards and so on.;
— internationalization of education — integration (convergence) educational systems different countries, bringing them to a single standard. For example, today in many countries the so-called Bologna process is underway - a unified system of levels is being created higher education- Bachelor's and Master's degrees. Our country also introduced these levels of higher education several years ago instead of specialty;
— an increase in the duration of education is a trend that manifests itself in the lengthening of the terms of both general education and professional training. Thus, today the idea of ​​“education throughout life” is actively developing, the meaning of which is that even after graduating from a university, a person must continue his education in the form of self-study or periodically improve his qualifications through courses in order to remain a sought-after specialist.
Interesting Facts. School education in all states has been and is given great importance. Education educates a new generation, which is the future.
As the chronicle testifies, the first school in Rus' arose back in 988 during the reign of Vladimir I Svyatoslavich. It was called “Book Learning.” Prince Vladimir gave the order to select children from families " the best people“However, for them, studying at school became a test. Mothers did not want to send their children to Book Education, seeing them off with tears and lamentations, as if on the last journey of the dead.
The mass practice of school education was introduced by Yaroslav the Wise. He was able to gather three hundred children in Novgorod and gave the order to “teach them books.” Thus the first mass school was opened. This practice quickly spread throughout Rus' - educational institutions were opened at monasteries.
During the era of the Mongol yoke, the development of education in our country slowed down. Schools began to open again only in the 16th century. The reforms of Peter I brought a great impetus to the development of education. He founded a large number of schools of marine, navigation and digital sciences.

Legal regulation of education in the Russian Federation. Rights and obligations of participants in the educational process

The legal regulation of education in our country is carried out in accordance with the Federal Law of December 29, 2012 No. 273-FZ “On Education in the Russian Federation”. It came into force on September 1, 2013.
In Russia, for citizens under 18 years of age, it is mandatory to receive basic general education. Parents are obliged to ensure that their children receive basic general education. The state guarantees free and publicly accessible general education at any level, as well as free secondary vocational and higher education on a competitive basis.
The organization of admission of citizens to professional educational organizations for training in secondary vocational and higher education programs is carried out by an admissions committee, which is approved in each technical school, college, and university. The admissions committee organizes entrance tests (exams, interviews, etc.), compiles rating lists of applicants and develops draft orders for the admission of applicants. Enrollment orders are signed by the director (rector of the university).
An educational organization must have a license for educational activities. The license gives the right to conduct the educational process, but not to issue state-issued educational documents. The right to issue such educational documents belongs to educational organizations that have a certificate of state accreditation. Accreditation is a procedure for establishing the conformity of the quality of education in a specific school, technical school, college, university, etc. requirements of the federal state educational standard.
The educational organization is obliged to familiarize the applicant and (or) his parents (legal representatives) with its charter, with a license to carry out educational activities, with a certificate of state accreditation, with educational programs and other documents regulating the organization and implementation of educational activities, the rights and responsibilities of students .
The admissions committee is obliged to inform applicants about the rules of admission, the number of places for study at the expense of the federal budget (free of charge).
Admission to higher education institutions is carried out based on the results of the Unified State Exam (USE). Unified State Examination results are valid for four years. An applicant has the right to retake the mandatory exam on a reserve day once a year, and the optional Unified State Examination only after a year. An applicant has the right to apply for admission to no more than five universities per year, in each of which he can choose no more than three desired areas of training (specialties).
In accordance with the law, students are granted the following rights:
1) the choice of an organization carrying out educational activities, the form of education and the form of training after receiving basic general education or after reaching eighteen years of age;
2) providing conditions for learning, taking into account the characteristics of their psychophysical development and health status;
3) training according to an individual curriculum, including accelerated training, within the limits of the educational program being mastered in the manner established by local acts of the educational organization;
4) participation in the formation of the content of one’s vocational education subject to compliance with federal state educational standards;
5) choice of optional (optional for a given level of education, profession, specialty or area of ​​training) and elective (elected in mandatory) academic subjects, courses, disciplines;
6) mastering, along with academic subjects, courses, disciplines (modules) in the educational program being mastered, any other academic subjects, courses, disciplines (modules) taught in the organization;
7) crediting by an organization carrying out educational activities, in the manner established by it, of the results of students’ mastery of academic subjects, courses, disciplines (modules), practice, additional educational programs in other organizations carrying out educational activities;
8) deferment from conscription for military service;
9) respect for human dignity;
10) freedom of conscience, information, free expression of one’s own views and beliefs;
11) holidays;
12) academic leave;
13) transfer to obtain education in another profession, specialty and (or) area of ​​training, in another form of education;
14) transition from paid training to free training on the basis of local acts of the organization;
15) participation in the management of an educational organization in the manner established by its charter (for example, participation in the activities of self-government councils);
16) appealing against acts of an educational organization in the manner established by the legislation of the Russian Federation;
17) free use of library and information resources, educational, production, scientific base of the educational organization;
18) use, in the manner established by local regulations, of medical and health infrastructure, cultural objects and sports facilities of an educational organization;
19) development of one’s creative abilities and interests, including participation in competitions, olympiads, exhibitions, shows, physical education events, sports events, including official sports competitions, and other public events;
20) encouragement for success in educational, physical education, sports, social, scientific, scientific and technical, creative, experimental and innovative activities;
21) combining education with work without compromising the development of the educational program, the implementation of an individual curriculum on the basis of a local act of the organization.
Students of Russian educational organizations are obliged to:
1) conscientiously master the educational program, carry out the individual curriculum, including attending training sessions provided for by the curriculum or individual curriculum, carry out self-training to classes, complete tasks given by teaching staff as part of the educational program;
2) comply with the requirements of the charter of the organization carrying out educational activities, internal regulations, rules of residence in hostels and boarding schools and other local regulations on the organization and implementation of educational activities;
3) take care of maintaining and strengthening one’s health, strive for moral, spiritual and physical development and self-improvement;
4) respect the honor and dignity of other students and employees of the organization carrying out educational activities, not create obstacles to other students receiving education;
5) take care of the property of the organization carrying out educational activities.
For failure to comply with or violation of the charter of an organization carrying out educational activities, internal regulations, rules of residence in dormitories and boarding schools and other local regulations on the organization and implementation of educational activities, disciplinary measures may be applied to students - reprimand, reprimand, expulsion from the organization, carrying out educational activities. Expulsion does not apply to schoolchildren studying in basic programs
general education is compulsory in Russia. No disciplinary action will be taken To students in educational programs of preschool, primary general education, as well as To students with disabilities.
Interesting Facts. Accreditation of educational activities - the most important way guarantee the rights of applicants and students to receive quality education. Based on the results of accreditation examinations, dozens of universities and colleges are annually deprived of state accreditation. Students are transferred to other accredited educational institutions.
Before entering a university, you should ask whether the educational institution has a certificate of accreditation for the field of study (specialty) in which you plan to study. You can do this on the website Federal service for supervision in the field of education and science or in the admissions committee of an educational institution 1.

2. Morality, art and religion as elements of spiritual culture

The essence of morality
Moral - a form of social consciousness, including values, rules, requirements regulating people's behavior. In other words, these are the socially accepted ideas of people about proper and improper behavior, about good and evil. Religion, as one of the components, includes the principles of morality. Moral attitudes are also characteristic of ethical teachings. Morality today regulates the relationships of people in any society.
Scientists suggest that taboos became the primary form of morality. Taboos are strict prohibitions on certain actions. For example, already in ancient societies taboos were introduced on sexual relations with relatives and on committing abusive acts against the dead. Taboos were clothed in mysticism and fear of punishment for violation.
With the development of society, customs arose - historically established, repeatedly repeated forms of action, which in the eyes of members of society acquired mandatory significance. Custom is a habit, an accepted, learned thing, an everyday thing. Customs may change. They cover broad areas of social relations - personal, family, professional, educational, etc. For example, the custom of standing up to greet a teacher entering the classroom is a repeated action in most schools and universities.
spiritual culture of man and society abstract
Deeply rooted in the public consciousness, passed on unchanged from generation to generation, customs and rules of behavior become traditions. Customs are most often followed only because “it’s customary.” Traditions are clothed with emotional overtones - the aspirations and efforts of people to preserve and reproduce traditions. For example, some families pass on traditions from generation to generation and sacredly preserve them.
There are many functions of morality, and it is unlikely that it will ever be possible to compile a complete list of them. Let's highlight the main ones:
- regulatory - morality regulates human behavior in all spheres of public life;
- motivational - morality motivates a person, stimulates his desire to do something or not do something. For example, a young man gave in to public transport Grandma's place. The motive for this act was his moral principles;
- value-oriented - morality is a life guide for a person, shows him what is good and what is bad;
- constitutive - morality establishes the highest forms of human behavior that dominate over all other regulators.
For example, morality establishes the rule “thou shalt not steal.” It has become the supreme regulator in most societies;
- coordination - morality coordinates the actions of people, ensures the consistency of their behavior;
— educational — morality influences a person’s upbringing. Many scientists confuse the concept of morality and morality.
Nevertheless, it is possible to trace the subtle differences in the understanding of these philosophical categories. Morality is a sphere of social consciousness, even a sphere of culture, that generalizes the rules of human behavior. And morality is the specific principles of real human behavior.
Morality is closely interconnected with law. The common features of moral and legal norms are that they are universal, extend their effect to all people, have a common object of regulation - social relations, are based on the concepts of justice, and act as a measure of freedom in society. Morality and law have a similar structure - they include rules of behavior and sanctions for non-compliance. Only these sanctions are different.
At the same time, we can highlight the differences between moral and legal norms:
- morality was formed due to the duration of the development of society and became a form of social consciousness, while law was sanctioned (accepted) by the state;
- moral norms are enforced by force of habit, as a result of conviction, education, while norms of law are mandatory and supported by the power of the state;
- failure to comply with moral norms is followed by remorse, public censure, and other informal sanctions; violation of the law entails legal liability imposed by the state;
— moral norms regulate a broader area of ​​social relations, in contrast to legal norms that regulate only relations controlled by the state. For example, relationships of friendship and love are not directly controlled by law, but morality regulates them;
- moral norms are not officially formalized anywhere, while legal norms are most often presented in regulations issued officially.
Moral principles and rules of conduct are integral part moral culture of the individual. The moral culture of an individual is the degree to which an individual assimilates and supports moral and ethical consciousness and the culture of society. This is the most important element of education.
Modern moral culture is based on many moral principles. Among them we can highlight “ Golden Rule morality”, expressed by Immanuel Kant: “Act towards other people as you would like them to act towards you.” The most important moral principle is also humanism—philanthropy, recognition of everyone’s personality, consideration of its needs and interests, prohibition of violence and aggression. Another moral principle is the moral autonomy of the individual. It means a person’s ability to choose the ways of his actions and take responsibility for them. Individual responsibility is possible when she has the right to determine her own line of behavior. An important moral principle is also humanism - love of humanity, recognition of the right of every person to happiness. Humanism requires the renunciation of any form of violence against humans.
Interesting Facts. Morality is associated not only with human consciousness, but also with neural processes in the brain. It turns out that the neural network (part of the brain) involved in making moral decisions partially overlaps with the network that is responsible for beliefs about other people's intentions, and on the network that is associated with the idea of emotional state other people (i.e. with compassion, empathy). This confirms the common belief that moral judgments are associated with seeing things through someone else's eyes and with the ability to perceive other people's feelings.

Moral choice and moral self-control of the individual

Moral standards are set moral ideal - a set of traits that should distinguish a person’s behavior and social contacts with other people. The choice of a specific action always remains with the person. Such a right to choose presupposes responsibility for it. Such social responsibility is realized primarily in social forms. For example, society gives a person the right to choose his line of behavior in relation to other people. At the same time, when fulfilling his desires, a person must focus on the rights and opportunities of others. The above-mentioned categorical imperative of I. Kant is the key to the moral attitude of people towards each other.
With the help of morality, society evaluates not only the practical actions of people, but also their motives, motives and intentions, feelings, desires, etc. At the same time, this sphere of a person’s personality does not manifest itself directly in social interactions, therefore, in this case, a special role belongs to internal regulators. The most important role in moral regulation is played by the formation in each individual of the ability to relatively independently develop and direct his own line of behavior in society without daily external control. This ability is expressed in such concepts as conscience, honor, self-esteem, moral duty.
The most important internal regulator of personality is conscience. Conscience - this is an ethical category that expresses the highest form of an individual’s ability to moral self-control. A person who has developed ideas about conscience will not allow clearly expressed immoral acts, because they may result in moral responsibility in the form of remorse. Conscience is one of the most ancient and intimately personal regulators of human behavior. Along with other moral categories, it allows a person to realize his moral responsibility to other people and society as a whole. Conscience is a kind of internal lynching that does not allow immoral acts and punishes for their commission.
Duty - a high moral obligation, which has become an intrapersonal source of voluntary subordination of one’s will to the tasks of achieving and preserving certain moral values. Debt is another internal regulator of a person’s behavior, based on an awareness of the importance of proper behavior and the inadmissibility of improper behavior. Awareness of duty forces a person to make a moral choice and serve society and its ideals. An example is debt to the Motherland in the form of military service. A considerable part of young men enter the army with the awareness of this duty. Duty is expressed in the form of internal stimulants of human behavior, the awareness of which leads to the implementation of proper (i.e., correct, required by society) behavior. The conscience and duty of an individual always reinforce her honor.
culture society people
Honor - this is an ethical category that includes an individual’s awareness of his social significance and recognition of this significance by society. This category does not allow behavior that would dishonor a person. In society, special importance is attached to the honor of representatives of professions associated with duty to the country and state. Thus, the concept of “officer’s honor” is widely used. At the same time, every person has honor. Each person must protect his honor, the honor of his family, city, people, etc.
Dignity - self-esteem of an individual, his awareness of his qualities, abilities, worldview, duty accomplished and social significance. Dignity is a fusion of many ideas people have about themselves, their personality. A sense of worth causes people to refrain from behavior that could undermine moral self-esteem and the assessment of personality by others.
Thanks to moral self-control, a person develops socially positive life principles - the fundamental ideas that guide a person in life. For example, many men have developed the principle of respectful treatment of women and the inadmissibility of using any pressure, especially violence against her. A person usually carries these principles throughout his life. The principles of life are such regulators of human behavior that color his entire life, they are limiters and regulators of the behavior of each member of society.
Moral choice and the associated moral self-control of the individual are the most important categories that contribute to the development of constructive social interactions between people.
Interesting facts* Conscience, duty, honor, dignity color the behavior of every person. At the same time, scientists argue about the causes and time of their occurrence. The most generally accepted point of view is that moral categories arose as a result of the established external requirements of society for a person. Society punished overly selfish behavior (that is, aimed solely at satisfying one's own needs, even to the detriment of others) and encouraged altruism (activities associated with unselfish concern for the well-being of others).
This theory was put forward by Charles Darwin. According to him, each of us has a desire to care for others; If, due to selfishness, we do not follow this desire and, for example, do not help our neighbor in trouble, then later, when we vividly imagine the distress we are experiencing, the desire to help our neighbor will arise again and dissatisfaction will cause us painful feeling remorse.
Conscience, like other categories, thus arose in the early stages of human development, when social relationships were formed.

Art and its role in people's lives

Art is a human activity that reflects the world in artistic images and is aimed at creating aesthetic values. Art has accompanied the development of society since the birth of modern man.
Primitive art performed mainly a ritual function - the ancients painted animal figures, ritual signs and used them as objects for magical actions (throwing spears, etc.). Today science knows many types of rock paintings. This primitive genre of art expressed primarily a magical attitude towards the world, i.e. a person believed that with the help of ritual actions over painted animals he would have good luck in hunting, etc.
Today art expresses an aesthetic attitude towards the world and has little to do with the utilitarian (everyday, practical) needs of a person. The essence of art is the creative self-expression of a person in different forms. For example, an artist’s painting is filled with a sense of beauty, the inspiration of its creator. It does not imply any utilitarian orientation, unlike the rock paintings of primitive people.
Let us highlight the main functions of art:
- educational - art influences the feelings and thoughts of people, influences their upbringing;
socializing - art influences the socialization of a person, helping him become a member of society;
- aesthetic - art shapes the aesthetic tastes and needs of a person;
- hedonistic - art gives people pleasure and pleasure;
- compensatory - art helps restore harmony of spirit, promotes calm mental state person;
- cognitive-heuristic - with the help of art a person can learn about the world, people’s relationships, etc.; art reflects those aspects of reality that are difficult for science to access.
This list is not closed; other functions of art can be identified. L.N. Tolstoy argued that art does not convince anyone, it simply infects with ideas. “Infected” with ideas, a person lives differently. He cares
to social problems, ready to help others. This is vital importance art - to form a personality with established aesthetic tastes, requests and guidelines.
Art has a number of specific characteristics: it is figurative and visual, involves artistic invention, focuses attention on beauty, and directly affects the emotional world of the individual.
Art is a specific phenomenon. On the one hand, this special shape social consciousness, expressing and recording, first of all, an aesthetic attitude towards the world, a sense of beauty, and on the other hand, this is an intellectual comprehension of the objective world and changing this world according to ideas about what it should be. An artist often paints pictures not only to express his aesthetic feelings, but also to convey meanings and desires. For example, the painting “Black Square” by Kazimir Malevich, which at that time became a challenge to traditional art. The author often said that he wanted to show “infinity and eternity” with this picture, that if you look for a long time and with concentration straight into the middle of the square, “... without being distracted by anything, as in the “camera obscura,” then, in the end, you will begin to feel it." Some art critics see in this painting a protest against established, traditional forms of art, against social foundations that have ceased to meet the needs of the time. Any painting contains not only beauty, but also deep meaning and the experiences of the creator.
Every nation tries to preserve and pass on to future generations the creations of its great artists. For this purpose, museums, exhibitions, and art galleries are actively developing in all countries. States finance their activities.
Interesting Facts. Art must follow the canons - established rules, traditions. Canons played a special role in icon painting. Thus, since ancient times, ocher, golden, etc. were considered canonical colors in icons. (but not blue). The icons of Our Lady of Kazan and Our Lady of Vladimir were painted precisely with the help of these colors. At the same time, new stylistic directions periodically appear in art. During the era of fragmentation in Rus' (XII-XV centuries), a special school of icon painting was formed - the Novgorod one, which used not only canonical colors. Thus, even the color blue is often found on Novgorod icons.
Painting has been developing for a long time within the framework of the canons set by the Academy of Arts. A special style of painting arose - academicism, the most important distinctive feature which had a rigid drawing of the contours of the figures - it seems that the heroes of the paintings are posing. Let us recall, for example, Karl Bryullov’s painting “The Last Day of Pompeii”. The figures look frozen, despite the drama of the events described.
One of the first attempts to contrast their creativity with academicism in Russia was the activity of the Peredvizhniki (“Association of Traveling Exhibitions”) in the last third of the 19th century. (V.I. Surikov, I.E. Repin, I.I. Shishkin, V.M. Vasnetsov, I.N. Kramskoy, etc.). The paintings of the Wanderers retain the features of academicism, but the contours of the figures, as a rule, are less rigidly drawn, which creates the illusion of movement.

Types of arts

Art uses sign-symbolic systems, i.e. generally accepted systems of symbols and signs. They can be expressed in special techniques of image, staging, music, etc. Depending on the specifics of this system, the special “language” of art, the main types of art can be distinguished: architecture, sculpture, decorative and applied arts, literature, music, theater, circus, ballet, cinema, photography, variety art, etc. Let's consider this classification in more detail.
Architecture - a monumental form of art, the purpose of which is to create structures and buildings necessary for the life and activities of mankind, taking into account the norms of aesthetics. The forms of architectural structures differ among different peoples and depend on many factors: geographical and climatic conditions, the landscape of the area, etc. Examples of this type of art can be the St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv, the building of Moscow State University in Moscow.
Architecture is more closely connected with the development of technology than other arts. It is able to combine with monumental painting, sculpture, decorative and other forms of art. An example of this is the decoration of buildings with sculptural compositions and picturesque images.
Art - group of species artistic creativity, visually reproducing reality. Fine arts include painting, graphics, sculpture, etc.
Graphics include drawings and artistic printed works (engraving, lithography). It is based on the possibility of creating an expressive artistic form by using lines, strokes and spots of different colors applied to the surface of the sheet. Graphics are primarily focused on the relationship of shapes and lines on a sheet of paper or canvas.
Painting captures the real relationships of the colors of the world, in color and through color it expresses the essence of objects, their aesthetic value, verifies their social purpose, their correspondence or contradiction with the environment. This is a flat fine art, the specificity of which is to represent, with the help of paints applied to the surface, an image of the real world, transformed by the creative imagination of the artist. The main thing in painting is the combination of colors. Painting is divided into:
- for monumental (fresco) - painting on wet plaster with paints diluted in water, or mosaic - an image made of colored stones, smalt, ceramic tiles;
- easel - a canvas that is created on an easel. Painting is represented by various genres: portrait, landscape, still life, historical genre, everyday genre, icon painting, etc.
Sculpture - spatial visual art, mastering the world in plastic images - figures created by a sculptor. The main materials used in sculpture are stone, bronze, marble, and wood. At the present stage of development of society, the number of materials used to create sculpture has expanded: steel, plastic, concrete, etc.
Decorative and applied arts - a type of creative activity to create household items intended to satisfy the utilitarian and artistic and aesthetic needs of people. Decorative and applied arts include products made from a variety of materials and using various technologies that have existed unchanged for many decades and even centuries. These are the so-called folk crafts, passed on from generation to generation in different parts of the world. Examples include Yelets lace, Khokhloma painting, etc.
Materials for an object of decorative and applied art can be metal, wood, clay, stone, bone. There are a wide variety of technical and artistic techniques for making products: carving, embroidery, painting, embossing, etc. Main characteristic feature object of decorative and applied art - decorativeness, which consists in imagery and the desire to decorate, make better, more beautiful.
Literature - a type of art in which the material carrier of imagery is the word. The sphere of interests of literature includes natural and social phenomena, various social cataclysms, the spiritual life of the individual, his feelings. Through the word, the author expresses his attitude to reality. In its various genres, literature embraces this material either through a dramatic reproduction of action, or through an epic narration of events, or through lyrical self-revelation inner world person.
Music - a type of art in which the means of embodying artistic images are organized musical sounds in a certain way. The main elements and expressive means of music are mode, rhythm, meter, tempo, timbre, melody, harmony, polyphony, instrumentation. Music is recorded in musical notation and realized in the process of performance.
Choreography - art that emphasizes movement and poses human body, poetically meaningful, organized in time and space. Dance interacts with music, together with it forming a musical and choreographic image.
Theater - a type of art that artistically explores the world through dramatic action carried out by a creative team. The basis of theater is dramaturgy. The synthetic nature of theatrical art determines its collective nature: the performance combines the creative efforts of the playwright, director, artist, composer, choreographer, and actor.
Photo - art that reproduces on a plane, through lines and shadows, the contour and shape of the object it conveys. Photography as an art form appeared relatively recently. It has acquired particular development in connection with the advent of the latest means of processing photographic media (computer graphics, etc.).
Cinema (cinematography) - the art of reproducing moving images captured on film onto a screen to create the impression of living reality. Cinema is an invention of the 20th century. Its appearance was determined by the achievements of science and technology in the field of optics, electrical and photographic engineering, chemistry, etc.
Interesting Facts. The most ancient types of art are architecture, painting, decorative and applied arts, and literature. The origins of theater in our country can also be found in antiquity. The first acting performances were associated with religious festivals or pagan rituals. Since the 11th century. buffoonery and buffoonery became widespread as forms of art. The first royal theater in Russia belonged to Alexei Mikhailovich and existed from 1672 to 1676. Its beginning is associated with the name of the boyar Artamon Matveev.
The birth of cinematography occurs at the end of the 19th century. In 1895, the Lumière brothers were able to create a working cinematograph camera and make several videos. The first films were without sound and involved either the use of text on film or their voice-over at the time of demonstration by announcers. Cinema became sound only in the first half of the 20th century.
In our country, the first film is considered to be the fantastic film narrative “Aelita” (1924). In 1925, the film “Battleship Potemkin” by Sergei Eisenstein was released, which is considered one of the most significant films in the history of Soviet cinema. The first Soviet film, which was originally filmed as a sound film, was released in 1931 and was called “A Start to Life.”

Religion and its role in society

Religion plays an important role in the life of society. It can be noted that, to one degree or another, religion has always accompanied the historical path of society. During difficult, turning-point stages in the development of society, the role of religion increased many times over. People often found consolation in it, the meaning of life in the flow of difficulties and social disasters.
Science has not clearly formulated a definition of religion. Let's highlight the most common definitions:
1) religion in a broad sense is belief in the supernatural, in God;
2) religion in the narrow sense - a system of beliefs and rituals that unites people who recognize and support them into a single community (confession).
The functions of religion are manifold. Let's highlight the main ones:
- worldview - religion sets principles, dogmas (positions, doubting the truth of which is considered a sin), predetermining the understanding of the world; religion influences the formation of worldview;
- compensatory - religion gives meaning to life in the human mind, compensates for the limitations, dependence, and powerlessness of people in difficult living conditions. Through rituals, religion consoles a person and helps relieve stress;
- communicative - religion ensures communication of believers with each other, with God, angels, saints;
- regulatory - religion regulates people’s relationships with each other, regulates their behavior;
- integrating - religion unites people - believers - in a community, ensures the stability of church organizations;
- culturally transmitting - religion transmits elements of culture from one people to others, promotes the development of writing and printing.
The most important component of any religion is a set of ethical issues and commandments. For example, the Bible contains the Sermon on the Mount of Jesus Christ, the most important provisions of which are the commandments “Thou shalt not kill!”, “Thou shalt not steal!”, “Thou shalt not commit adultery!”, “Thou shalt not make for thyself an idol!” and so on.
Before the formation of modern religions, there were proto-religions (early forms of religions):
- totemism - the worship of any clan, tribe, animal or plant as its mythical ancestor, belief in the protection of any species of animal or plant;
fetishism - belief in special properties, protection of objects, objects of the material world;
- animism - belief in the existence of souls, the spiritualization of the material world and its objects;
- magic - belief in a person’s ability to influence the forces of nature through ritual actions.
Early forms of religions (proto-religions) arose almost simultaneously with the appearance of modern man. With their help, people tried to explain natural phenomena and found consolation in difficult years of wars and disasters. The main thing in proto-religions is faith in the ability to change the world, to make it better.
Elements of early forms of religions still remain in the modern world. For example, the cow is revered as a sacred animal in Hinduism (totemism); many religions presuppose material attributes, which are given a special meaning, properties - crosses, idols (fetishism); most religions believe that a person has a soul that separates from the body at the moment of death (animism); religions involve a whole complex of rituals, prayers, with the help of which a person can influence nature, other people, etc. (magic).
Modern religions can be classified:
- polytheistic (assume polytheism). Most religions are endowed with polytheism - Buddhism, Lamaism, paganism, Taoism, etc. Most modern religions are polytheistic;
— monotheistic (assume belief in one God). Religions that profess monotheism include Hinduism, Christianity, and Islam. These are later religions. In Christianity, one can note the remnants of polytheism - “God is one in three persons.”
According to the degree of spread of religion, it can be divided into:
- national - religions professed by one people, nation (Judaism);
- global - common among several nations, not tied to any ethnic group. There are three world religions: Buddhism, Christianity, Islam. They are the ones who have the greatest influence in the world today. Buddhism arose around the 6th century. BC. V Ancient India. Orthodoxy and Catholicism are the main branches of Christianity, which arose at the turn of the old and new era. Islam arose around the 5th-6th centuries. AD
Interesting Facts. Ancient religions in science are often combined with one word - “paganism”. It is not one particular religion, it is many ethnic religions. The main feature of paganism is the spiritualization of nature. Pagan gods personify the forces of nature.
Before the baptism of Rus' in 988 by Prince Vladimir I, paganism was widespread in Slavic tribes. Perun, the god of lightning and war, was recognized as the supreme god. Second on the list is Hore, the sun god.
Perhaps Hore in the list duplicates the next deity - Dazh-god, also associated with solar functions (i.e., the functions of the sun god). In “The Tale of Igor’s Campaign” the Russians are twice spoken of as the grandchildren of Dazhbog, who, apparently, should be understood as the ancestor or patron of the Russian people, their heritage and wealth. More often, Dazhbog is understood as the god of the life-giving forces of nature: rain, wind, sun rays, etc.
Stribog is correlated with Dazhbog as a god - the distributor of wealth. Its functions are not entirely clear to modern science.
Almost nothing is known about the next deity on the list - Simargl. Simargl is presented as a designation for a fairy-tale bird like a vulture or half-dog, half-bird. This mythological character, very popular in Iran, in the Kiev pantheon, apparently, was a completely foreign, “alien” deity.
Last on the list is the name of Mokoshi (goddess of the feminine), the only female character in the pantheon. The cult of Mokoshi was very popular among women for many centuries after the introduction of Christianity. In northern Russia, she was represented as a woman with a large head and long arms, spinning at night.

World religions

World religions today have a huge impact on the development of the entire world community. Let's look at them in more detail. Buddhism - from the Sanskrit word "Budh" - enlightenment. Today it is common in South, Southeast and East Asia. There are many followers in Russia - they mainly live in the Republic of Tuva, Buryatia and Kalmykia. The source of the doctrine and the set of sacred rules is the Tipitaka. The founder of Buddhism is considered to be Prince Gautama, who achieved enlightenment through contemplation. The most important thesis of Buddhism is the achievement of enlightenment, understanding of truth through passive, inactive contemplation, abstraction from all earthly desires. The source of all problems and troubles, followers of Buddhism believe, is in earthly desires and needs. They must be renounced.
Christianity is widespread mainly in Europe, North and South America. home holy book- The Bible. Christianity today is represented by three main branches - Orthodoxy, Catholicism, Protestantism. Orthodoxy is more widespread in Eastern Europe, including Russia. Patriarchs are recognized as the heads of Orthodox churches in different countries. Catholics recognize the Pope as the head of the church. Protestantism is represented by many sects and individual movements of Christianity (Lutherans, Anglican Church, Baptists, Adventists, etc.). The Christian religion defends the idea of ​​human sinfulness as the cause of all his misfortunes. According to Christians, only prayer and repentance can deliver from troubles. The main theses of Christianity are patience, humility, and forgiveness.
Islam is the youngest of the world's religions. It is distributed mainly in the Middle East and North Africa. There are many Muslims in Russia - in Tatarstan, Bashkortostan, and the republics of the North Caucasus. The main holy book of Islam is the Koran. There are also other religious sources - Sunnah, Sharia (collection of norms of Muslim law). Islam is a very strict religion. His followers are required to pray five times a day, abstain from consuming certain foods, for women - wear a hijab (a headscarf that covers almost the entire face), etc. According to Muslims, man is a weak creature and he needs to rely on the help and mercy of Allah.
World religions, as well as the most developed national religions, have a special social institution that unites them into confessions (religious groups) - the church. The Church is a social institution, a religious organization, which is based on a single Creed (principles of doctrine), which determines the content of religious ethics and activities, rituals and cults.
Most religions involve active preachers. Their goal is to promote the spread of religion.
They often actively promote the conversion of atheists (those who do not profess any religion) and people of other faiths to their religion. This activity is called proselytism - this is the desire to convert others to one's faith.
World religions, like most national ones, are based on dogmas - provisions that cannot be questioned. For example, in Christianity, one of these dogmas is the recognition of the existence (existence) of God. Doubting this is a terrible sin. The expression of this dogma in Islam is the phrase of the Koran “There is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is his prophet.” Religious dogmas are presented in church books (Bible, Koran, etc.).
Religion today has become an element of politics in many countries. Thus, the exercise of power by the president in some countries is based on religious commandments. The President of the United States, upon taking office, swears an oath of allegiance to the state on the Bible. The heads of the Orthodox and Catholic churches often make proposals to stop military conflicts and clashes, and actively participate in peaceful construction.
Interesting Facts. In the teachings of Islam there is the concept of “jihad” - many today interpret it as a holy war against infidels. Jihad is declared against the Gentiles, and because of this, wars break out.
Initially, jihad was understood in a completely different way - as a holy war against one’s own shortcomings.

Religion and church in the modern world. Religious associations in Russia. Freedom of conscience

Russia is a secular state, like many other countries. The church is separated from the state. However, this does not mean a ban on religion.
In accordance with the constitutional principle of separation of religious associations from the state, the authorities:
- does not interfere in a citizen’s determination of his attitude to religion and religious affiliation, in the upbringing of children by parents or persons replacing them, in accordance with their convictions and taking into account the child’s right to freedom of conscience and freedom of religion;
- does not assign to religious associations the performance of functions of state authorities, other government agencies, government agencies and local governments;
- does not interfere with the activities of religious associations if it does not contradict the Federal Law of September 26, 1997 No. 125-FZ;
— ensures the secular nature of education in state and municipal educational institutions.
The state regulates the provision of tax and other benefits to religious organizations, provides financial, material and other assistance to religious organizations in the restoration, maintenance and protection of buildings and objects that are historical and cultural monuments.
Article 28 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation guarantees everyone freedom of conscience, freedom of religion, including the right to profess individually or together with others any religion or not to profess any, to freely choose, have and disseminate religious and other beliefs and act in accordance with them. Freedom of conscience and religion belongs to all persons legally present in the territory of the Russian Federation and does not depend on the citizenship of the person.
It is not allowed to establish advantages, restrictions or other forms of discrimination depending on religious beliefs, except in cases established by federal laws and only to the extent necessary in order to protect the foundations of the constitutional system, morality, health, rights and legitimate interests of a person and citizen, ensuring the defense of the country and the security of the Russian Federation.
No one is obliged to report their attitude to religion and cannot be subjected to coercion when determining their attitude to religion, to profess or refuse to profess religion, to participate or not to participate in worship services, other religious rites and ceremonies, in the activities of religious associations, in teaching religion . It is prohibited to involve minors in religious associations, as well as to teach religion to minors against their will and without the consent of their parents or persons in their stead.
In the modern world, one can note the intensification of the activities of sects - these are religious groups that have separated from the main religious trend and are opposed to it. Often sects involve the cult of their founder, socially negative elements of activity. The term “totalitarian sect” is often used to refer to such sects. An example is the widely known sect in Japan “Aum Shinrikyo” (banned in Russia), which committed a number of terrorist acts.
In accordance with the Federal Law of September 26, 1997 No. 125-FZ “On Freedom of Conscience and Religious Associations,” religious groups and organizations can be liquidated if they carry out:
— violation of public safety and public order;
— actions aimed at carrying out extremist activities;
- coercion to destroy the family;
- infringement of cash, rights and freedoms of citizens;
- causing damage established in accordance with the law
Interesting Facts. People's interest in sects and their activities intensifies during difficult, turning-point years. There is a boom in interest in Russia To sects occurred in the 90s. last century, when our country was experiencing a transitional stage from socialism to a market economy.

Man is not born to

Disappear without a trace as an unknown speck of dust.

A person is born in order to leave an eternal mark on himself...

V. A. Sukhomlinsky

When communicating with people, we all, as a rule, form our own opinion about our interlocutor or acquaintance. One person seems handsome to us, another - smart, a third - cheerful. We subconsciously highlight in his appearance main feature and based on this we conclude: this person is pleasant to us, but that person is not; We want to continue getting acquainted with one, and we try to avoid the other. It’s interesting that most often we enjoy communicating with nice, beautiful people. But it is not only external beauty that attracts us. It's all about the inner light. It is no secret that the eyes are the expression of a person’s spiritual life, the mirror of his thoughts, aspirations, and feelings. Inner beauty is always reflected in appearance. And the higher the level of mental, moral, aesthetic development of a person, the higher his culture, the more expressive and attractive his appearance and the brighter the impression he makes on others. This is why spiritual culture is almost always identified with beauty.

I think this largely happens because a cultured person is always attentive and sensitive to the world around him. His open heart absorbs everything beautiful that exists around him, and this beauty fills his entire being and is reflected in his appearance. And here every detail, every little thing is important, because the beauty of the soul begins with small things. A person who is attentive and sensitive to the world around him is delighted by a cool stream babbling in the shade of trees, and a small bird that sings its joyful song in the first rays of the spring sun, and the creaking of pure winter snow underfoot. He will never thoughtlessly pick a flower or leave barbaric traces of his presence in the forest. In many ways, we educate ourselves. And the one in whom a noble, pure soul lives always strives for improvement, expands his knowledge, and is interested in everything that happens around him. Such a person creates a special world within himself, which never stands still, but is in constant movement forward, in constant development. A person of high spiritual culture strives to bring as much benefit as possible. The nobility of the soul is manifested in relation to familiar and unfamiliar people.

We often see how people follow their fleeting desires, guided only by their feelings. But, unfortunately, these desires are not always worthy. Rash actions often bring pain and disappointment, and, even worse, evil and trouble to other people. Probably everyone has seen how people can hurt with one word, how, succumbing to an instant feeling, they can destroy something high, fragile, important. That is why the beauty of the human spirit lies, first of all, in the ability to comprehend one’s actions and desires, the ability to decide for oneself, to give free rein to one’s feelings, to express one’s desires. Spiritual beauty is incompatible with ignorance, indifference, and laziness. She cannot stand next to injustice and evil. A spiritually rich person will never pass by the grief of others; he will not leave his loved ones, friends, and relatives in trouble. Having a keen sense of beauty, such a person also acutely senses untruth, indifference, cruelty; he is always concerned about what is happening and strives to make his own contribution to improving life.

In conclusion, I would like to quote the words of the famous teacher and psychologist V.A. Sukhomlinsky about beauty: “Beauty is a bright light that illuminates the world, in this light truth, truth, goodness is revealed to you; illuminated by this light, you experience commitment and intransigence. Beauty teaches us to recognize evil and fight it. I would call beauty the gymnastics of the soul - it straightens our spirit, our conscience, our feelings and beliefs. Beauty is a mirror in which you see yourself and thanks to which you feel about yourself in one way or another.”