One of the properties of the psyche is its selective orientation. Selective orientation of consciousness increases the efficiency of current activity due to the inhibition of all other competing processes. Centralization in consciousness of what is of greatest significance for human activity is the organization of consciousness, manifested in its direction and concentration on significant objects.
The direction of consciousness is the selection of essential this moment influences, and concentration is a distraction from side stimuli.
Attention is the organization of all mental activity, consisting in its selective direction and concentration on the objects of activity.
Attention, ensuring the identification of objects that are significant for a given activity, is an operational orienting function of the psyche.
Identification of significant objects is carried out as in external environment- externally directed attention, and from the fund of the psyche itself - internally directed attention.
The main physiological mechanism of attention is the functioning of the focus of optimal arousal, or dominant. Thanks to optimal stimulation in a certain area of the cerebral cortex, conditions are created for the most accurate and complete reflection of what is especially significant at the moment, and the reflection of everything that is not related to the current activity is blocked.
The physiological mechanism of attention is also the innate orientation reflex. The brain secretes from environment every new unusual stimulus. The functioning of the orientation reflex is accompanied by appropriate adjustment of the analyzers, an increase in their sensitivity, as well as a general activation of brain activity. Research by neuropsychologists has established that the preservation of directed, programmed action and inhibition of all reactions to side effects are carried out by the frontal lobes of the cerebral cortex.
The frontal lobes of the cerebral cortex are associated with all voluntary conscious activity, with the functioning of speech. This indicates the essence of attention as a way of functioning of the entire consciousness.
Types of attention
Mental processes can have an involuntary (independent of the will) direction. In these cases, they are organized in the form of involuntary (unintentional) attention. Thus, a sharp, unexpected signal causes attention against our will.
But the main form of organization of mental processes is voluntary (intentional) attention, characterized by a systematic orientation of consciousness. Voluntary attention is due to the isolation of significant information.
The ability to voluntarily direct mental activity is one of the main features of human consciousness. In the process of activity, voluntary attention can turn into post-voluntary attention, which does not require constant volitional efforts.
All types of attention are associated with a person’s attitudes, with his readiness and predisposition to certain actions. The installation increases the sensitivity of analyzers and the level of all mental processes. Thus, we are more likely to notice the appearance of a certain object if we expect it to appear in a certain place and at a certain time.
The properties of attention - direction, volume, distribution, concentration, intensity, stability and switchability - are associated with the structure of human activity. At the initial stage of activity, during the implementation of general orientation, when the objects of this environment are still equally significant, the main feature of attention is breadth, an evenly distributed focus of consciousness on several objects. At this stage of activity there is still no stability of attention. But this quality becomes significant when the most significant ones for a given activity are identified from the available objects. Mental processes are concentrated on these objects.
Depending on the significance of the activity, mental processes become more intense. The duration of action necessitates the stability of mental processes.
The span of attention is the number of objects that a person can simultaneously be aware of with the same degree of clarity.
If the observer is shown simultaneously short term a number of objects, then it turns out that people cover four or five objects with their attention. The amount of attention depends on professional activity a person, his experience, mental development. The amount of attention increases significantly if objects are grouped and systematized.
During interrogation, it should be taken into account that a witness who perceived an event during a short period of time (for example, a criminal quickly running away for cover, a car rushing at high speed) cannot testify about more than four or five features of the perceived objects.
The volume of attention is somewhat less than the volume of awareness, because along with the clear reflection of objects in our consciousness at each moment there also occurs an indistinct awareness of many other objects (up to several dozen).
Distribution of attention is the focus of consciousness on performing several simultaneous actions. Thus, while conducting a search, the investigator simultaneously examines the premises, maintains contact with the person being searched, observes the slightest changes in his mental state, and makes assumptions about the most likely places where the objects being sought are stored. The distribution of attention depends on experience, skills and abilities. A novice driver tensely regulates the movement of the car, he can hardly take his eyes off the road to look at the instruments, and is in no way inclined to carry on a conversation with his interlocutor. It is very difficult for a novice cyclist to simultaneously move the pedals, maintain balance and monitor the features of the road. Having acquired the appropriate stable skills during the exercise, a person begins to perform certain actions semi-automatically: they are regulated by those parts of the brain that are not in a state of optimal arousal. This makes it possible to perform several actions simultaneously, while any new action requires complete concentration of consciousness.
Concentration of attention is the degree of concentration of consciousness on one object, the intensity of the focus of consciousness on this object. Switchability of attention is the speed of voluntary change of objects of mental processes. This quality of attention largely depends on the individual characteristics of the highest nervous activity human - balance and mobility of nervous processes. Depending on the type of higher nervous activity, the attention of some people is more mobile, others - less mobile. This individual feature of attention should be taken into account during professional selection. High switchability of attention - required quality investigator. Frequent shifts of attention present significant mental difficulties, cause overwork of the central nervous system,
Sustainability of attention is the duration of concentration of mental processes on one object. It depends on the significance of the object, on the nature of the actions with it and on the individual characteristics of the person.
Different people tend to convert Special attention on certain aspects of objects and phenomena. This must be taken into account when assessing and checking witness testimony. Thus, the attention of a certain category of witnesses may be primarily directed to what is associated with their personality (egocentrism). Summarizing his experience as a judicial figure, A.F. Koni writes: “The owner of such attention will often talk with great detail and taste about nonsense that really only concerns him and is interesting only to him, be it issues of sleep, the comfort of a suit, household habits, Tightness of shoes, indigestion, etc. - than about events of public importance or historical significance that he had to witness. From his story, everything that is generic and broad in what he can testify will always escape.”
Attention is the state of mental interaction of an individual with the environment. The optimal level of human mental activity is determined primarily by the natural cycle of alternating sleep and wakefulness. The level of wakefulness is determined by the content of a person’s activity, his attitude to this activity, his interests, and passion. The highest levels of mental activity are associated with a state of inspiration, meditation, and religious ecstasy. All these states are associated with a deep emotional experience of the most significant phenomena for a given individual.
Our perception of events and our actions depend on our personal and situational states. IN critical conditions For many people, the adequate relationship with outside world- the personality is immersed in the subjective world of “narrowed consciousness.”
One of the individual typological features of attention is due to the increased emotional sensitivity of some people and it manifests itself in a significant reduction in the amount of attention under emotiogenic influences.
Along with typological characteristics, there are personal, purely individual characteristics of the focus of attention, determined by the interests, cultural level, profession, and life experience of a person.
The organization of a person’s consciousness is expressed in his attentiveness, in the degree of clarity of awareness of the objects of reality.
Different levels of attentiveness are an indicator of the organization of consciousness. The lack of a clear direction of consciousness means its disorganization.
In investigative practice, when assessing people's actions, it is necessary to keep in mind various non-pathological levels of disorganization of consciousness.
One of the states of partial disorganization of consciousness is absent-mindedness. What is meant here is not that “professorial” absent-mindedness, which is the result of great mental concentration, but general absent-mindedness, which excludes any concentration of attention. This type of absent-mindedness is a temporary disturbance of orientation and weakening of attention.
Absent-mindedness can arise as a result of a rapid change of impressions, when a person does not have the opportunity to concentrate on each of them separately. Thus, a person who comes to the workshop of a large plant for the first time may experience a state of absent-mindedness under the influence of a wide variety of influences.
Absent-mindedness can also arise under the influence of monotonous, monotonous, insignificant stimuli.
The reasons for absent-mindedness may be dissatisfaction with one’s activities, the consciousness of its uselessness or insignificance. Absent-mindedness also occurs when there is a lack of understanding of what is perceived, etc. The level of organization of consciousness depends on the content of the activity. Very long continuous operation in one direction leads to overwork - neurophysiological exhaustion. Overfatigue is first expressed in diffuse irradiation of the excitation process, in a violation of differential inhibition (a person becomes incapable of subtle analysis and discrimination), and then a general protective inhibition and a sleepy state arises.
One of the types of temporary disorganization of consciousness is apathy - a state of indifference to external influences. This passive state is associated with a sharp decrease in the tone of the cerebral cortex and is subjectively experienced as a painful state. Apathy can result from nervous overstrain or in conditions of sensory hunger. Apathy to a certain extent paralyzes a person’s mental activity, dulls his interests, and reduces his orienting and exploratory reaction.
The highest degree of non-pathological disorganization of consciousness occurs during stress and affect.
So, for active interaction with the environment, an incentive to activity, operational orientation in changes in the environment and regulation of activity are necessary.
Above, the initial basis of activity was considered - the mechanisms of its motivation - motivation. Next, it is necessary to consider the information base for regulating behavior. Collection and processing of information about reality is carried out by the system cognitive processes: sensation, perception, thinking, memory and imagination. Mental activity is associated with the assessment of reflected objects, with emotions and volitional regulation.
A sequential consideration of these processes to which we are moving should not create the impression of some kind of sequence in the very structure of the psyche. All mental processes are interconnected in a single stream of human consciousness, in his activity.
Attention
Attention functions:
1) the function of selecting significant impacts that meet the needs of a given activity;
2) the function of ignoring other unimportant competing influences;
3) the function of retention, maintaining the activity being performed until the goal is achieved, i.e. regulation and control of activity.
Types of attention:
Involuntary attention- involuntary, spontaneously occurring attention caused by the action of a strong, contrasting or new, unexpected stimulus or a significant stimulus that evokes an emotional response.
Voluntary attention- conscious concentration on certain information requires volitional efforts, tires after 20 minutes.
Post-voluntary attention- is caused through entry into activity and the interest arising in connection with this, as a result long time focus is maintained, tension is relieved and the person does not get tired, although post-voluntary attention can last for hours.
Qualities or properties of attention:
concentration- degree of concentration of attention on the object; volume - the number of objects that can be captured by attention at the same time;
switching- intentional, conscious transfer of attention from one object to another;
distribution- the ability to hold several objects in the sphere of attention at the same time, to perform several types of activities;
sustainability- duration of concentration of attention on an object.
The pattern of circulation of attention is that every 6-10 seconds the human brain switches off from receiving information for a split second, as a result, some part of the information may be lost. Research by B. M. Teplov and V. D. Nebylitsyn showed that the quality of attention depends on the properties of the human nervous system. It was found that people with weak nervous system additional irritants interfere with concentration, and even increase concentration.
However, the lack of stimuli and information is an unfavorable factor. Studies have shown that when a person is isolated from irritants coming from the environment and from his own body (sensory deprivation, when a person is placed in a soundproof chamber, wearing light-proof glasses, placed in a warm bath to reduce skin sensitivity), then physically normal healthy man Quite quickly he begins to experience difficulties in controlling his thoughts, he loses orientation in space, in structure own body, he begins to have hallucinations and nightmares. When examining people after such isolation, they observed disturbances in the perception of color, shape, size, space, time, and sometimes the constancy of perception was lost.
Attention is one of those human cognitive processes in which
regarding the essence and the right to self-examination
which there is still no agreement among psychologists, despite the fact that its research has been going on for many centuries. Some scientists argue that attention does not exist as a special, independent process, that it acts only as a side or moment of any other psychological process or human activity. Others believe that attention is a completely independent mental state of a person, a specific internal process, which has its own characteristics that are irreducible to the characteristics of other cognitive processes. To substantiate their point of view, supporters of the latter opinion point out that in the human brain it is possible to detect and distinguish special types of structures associated specifically with attention, anatomically and physiologically relatively autonomous from those that ensure the functioning of other cognitive processes. It was pointed out, in particular, the role of the reticular formation in providing attention to the orientation reflex as its possible innate mechanism and, finally, to the dominant, studied and described in connection with attention by A. Ukhtomsky.
Really, in the system of psychological phenomena attention
occupies a special position. It is included in all other mental processes, acts as their necessary moment, and it is not possible to separate it from them, isolate it and study it in its “pure” form. We deal with the phenomena of attention only when we consider the dynamics of cognitive processes and the features of various mental states person. Whenever we try to highlight the “matter” of attention, distracted from all other content psychic phenomena, she seems to disappear.
However, one cannot help but see the peculiarities of attention that run like a red thread through all other psychic phenomena, where it manifests itself, not reducible to moments various types activities in which a person is involved. This is the presence in it of some dynamic, observable and measurable characteristics, such as volume, concentration, switchability and a number of others, not directly related to cognitive processes such as sensations, perception, memory and thinking.
The correct solution to the problem under discussion is to try to combine and take into account both points of view, that is, to see in attention both the side of processes and phenomena, and something independent, independent of them. This means taking the point of view according to which attention as a separate mental process adjacent to others does not exist, but is a completely special state that characterizes all these processes as a whole. This position is confirmed by known anatomical and physiological data, the main of which are the following:
1. The dominant mechanism as a physiological correlate of attention can be observed on the entire surface of the cerebral cortex, regardless of projection zones what specific analyzers are localized in them.
2. Reticular formation, the work of which is associated with the phenomenon
attention, is in the path of nerve impulses concerning
almost all cognitive processes (nonspecific pathways
afferent and efferent conduction of sensory information).
3. Attention neurons - novelty detector cells - can be found on almost the entire surface and in some internal structures of the brain.
4. At the same time, all three named anatomical and physiological factors in the central nervous system exist autonomously and independently of individual touch analyzers, which suggests that attention is still a special phenomenon, irreducible to all others.
What is the essence of this process and at the same time the state of the human psyche? Let us consider this issue first illustratively, and then in a more precise definition.
One of the most characteristic features of our spiritual life, wrote the famous American psychologist E. Titchener, is the fact that, being under a constant influx of more and more new impressions, we note and notice only the smallest, insignificant part of them. Only this part of external impressions and internal sensations is highlighted by our attention, appears in the form of images, is recorded in memory, and becomes the content of reflection.
Attention can be defined as a psychophysiological process, a state that characterizes the dynamic features of cognitive activity. They are expressed in its concentration on a relatively narrow area of external or internal reality, which at a given moment in time becomes conscious and concentrates mental and physical strength person for a certain period of time . Attention- This is the process of conscious or unconscious (semi-conscious) selection of some information coming through the senses and ignoring others.
Attention - This is the process of conscious or unconscious (semi-conscious) selection of some information coming through the senses and ignoring others.
Human attention has five basic properties:
Sustainability attention is manifested in the ability to maintain a state of attention for a long time on any object, subject of activity, without being distracted or weakening attention.
Focus (concentration) (the opposite quality - absent-mindedness) is manifested in the differences that exist in the degree of concentration of attention on some objects and its distraction from others
Switching attention is understood as its transfer from one object to another, from one type of activity to another. in the speed with which he can transfer his attention from one object to another, and such a transfer can be both involuntary and voluntary.
All three characteristics of attention are related to the properties of the human nervous system (lability, excitability and inhibition)
Distribution of attention consists of the ability to concentrate attention over a significant space, simultaneously perform several types of activities or perform several various actions. The distribution of attention depends on the psychological and physiological state person
Attention span - this is a characteristic of it that is determined by the amount of information that can simultaneously be stored in the sphere of increased attention (consciousness) of a person. Numerical characteristics of the average attention span of people - 5-7 units of information
Functions and types of ATTENTION
Attention in human life and activity performs many various functions. It activates necessary and inhibits currently unnecessary psychological and physiological processes.
Attention is associated with the direction and selectivity of cognitive processes. Attention determines the accuracy and detail of perception, the strength and selectivity of memory, the direction and productivity of mental activity - in a word, the quality and results of the functioning of all cognitive activity.
Types of attention:
Natural attention given to a person from his very birth in the form of an innate ability to selectively respond to certain external or internal stimuli that carry elements of information novelty. The main mechanism is called the orienting reflex and is associated with the activity of the reticular formation and novelty detector neurons.
Socially conditioned attention develops during life as a result of training and upbringing, is associated with the volitional regulation of behavior, with a selective conscious response to objects.
Direct attention is not controlled by anything other than the object to which it is directed and which corresponds to the actual interests and needs of a person.
Vicarious attention adjustable using special means, for example, gestures, words, pointing signs, objects.
Involuntary attention not connected with the participation of the will, but. Involuntary attention does not require effort to maintain and focus attention on something for a certain time.
free necessarily includes volitional regulation and has all these qualities. Voluntary attention is usually associated with a struggle of motives or impulses, the presence of strong, oppositely directed and competing interests, each of which in itself is capable of attracting and maintaining attention.
Sensual associated with emotions and selective work of the senses; with sensory attention, some sensory impression is located in the center of consciousness .
Intellectual attention is associated with concentration and direction of thought. In intellectual attention, the object of interest is thought.
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Interaction of charged bodies. Coulomb's law. Law of conservation of electric charge
The mechanical movement of a body is the change in its position in space relative to other bodies over time. Relative motion is the movement of a point/body relative to a moving reference frame.
In turn, the direction of mental activity should mean its selective nature, i.e., isolating from the environment specific objects, phenomena that are significant for the subject, or choosing a certain type of mental activity. The concept of direction also includes the preservation of activity for a certain period of time. It is not enough to just choose this or that activity in order to be attentive - you need to maintain this choice, preserve it.
Another characteristic of attention is focus. By concentration, first of all, we mean greater or lesser depth in an activity. The more complex the task, the greater the intensity and intensity of attention should be, i.e., greater depth is required. In addition, concentration is associated with distraction from everything extraneous. Direction and concentration are closely related. One cannot exist without the other. However, despite the close connection between them, these concepts are not identical. Direction is associated with the transition from one activity to another, and concentration is associated with depth in the activity.
Attention, like any mental process, is associated with certain physiological mechanisms. Generally physiological basis the selection of individual stimuli and the flow of processes in a certain direction constitutes the excitation of some nerve centers and inhibition of others. A stimulus affecting a person causes activation of the brain. Activation of the brain is carried out primarily by the reticular formation. Irritation of the ascending part of the reticular formation causes the appearance of rapid electrical oscillations in the cerebral cortex, increasing mobility nervous processes, reduces sensitivity thresholds. In addition, the diffuse thalamic system, hypothalamic structures, etc. are involved in brain activation.
Among the “trigger” mechanisms of the reticular formation, the orienting reflex should be noted first of all. He is innate reaction organism to any change in the environment in humans and animals. However, attention cannot be explained by the orienting reflex alone. Physiological mechanisms of attention are more complex.
Peripheral mechanisms include the adjustment of sensory organs. Listening to a faint sound, a person turns his head in the direction of the sound and at the same time the corresponding muscle stretches the eardrum, increasing its sensitivity. When the sound is very strong, the tension eardrum weakens, which impairs the transmission of vibrations to the inner ear.
N.F. Dobritsyn: attention is the direction and concentration of a person’s mental activity. Direction is understood as the selective nature of activity, concentration - deepening into a given activity.
L.N. Kuleshova: like memory, attention relates to end-to-end mental processes. Therefore, it can be represented as a process (or aspects of a process: for example, sensory, perceptual, intellectual attention), and as a state (for example, a state of concentration), and as a personality trait (for example, attentiveness.
In contrast to memory, the regulatory function of attention appears more clearly, which provides grounds for classifying its types depending on the levels of mental regulation. This classification provides for the division of attention into involuntary, voluntary and post-voluntary. If direction and concentration are involuntary, then we speak of involuntary attention. Involuntary attention is determined both by the physical characteristics of the stimulus (intensity, contrast, duration, suddenness, etc.) and the significance of the stimulus for the person. If the direction and concentration of a person’s attention is associated with a consciously set goal, then they speak of voluntary attention. Along with these two types of attention, a third is also distinguished - post-voluntary. In this case, the conscious performance of any task is accompanied, as Dobritsyn says, by the absorption of the individual by this activity and does not require volitional efforts.
The main characteristics of attention include volume / selectivity / stability / concentration / distribution / switching.
Attention span is the number of objects that can be clearly perceived in a relatively short period of time. Modern experiments have suggested that the attention span is six. Voluntary regulation of attention span with isolated stimuli is limited. With semantic organization of stimuli, it is much higher. The limited scope of attention requires the subject to constantly highlight any objects located in the sensory-perceptual zone, and unselected objects are used by him as a background. This selection from a variety of signals of only some of them is called selectivity of attention. A quantitative parameter of attention selectivity is considered, for example, the speed at which a subject selects a stimulus from many others, and a qualitative parameter is accuracy, i.e. the degree of correspondence of the choice results to the original stimulus material.
Stability of attention is the subject’s ability not to deviate from the direction of mental activity and maintain focus on the object of attention. Characteristics of stability of attention are the time parameters of the duration of maintaining the direction and concentration of mental activity without deviation from the initial qualitative level.
Concentration of attention also involves determining the subject’s ability to maintain concentration on the object of attention in the presence of interference. Attention concentration is assessed by the intensity of interference.
Distribution of attention indicates the subject's ability to direct and focus attention on several independent variables at the same time. Characteristics of attention distribution: time indicators obtained by comparing the duration of the correct execution of one task and the execution of the same task together with other (two or more) tasks.
Switching attention is a movement of its focus and concentration from one object to another or from one type of activity to another. The characteristic of switching attention is the degree of difficulty of its implementation, measured by the speed of the subject’s transition from one type of activity to another. It has been established that the speed of switching attention depends both on the stimulus material and on the nature of the subject’s activity with it. In individuals characterized by a mobile nervous system (rapid transition from excitation to inhibition and back), switching attention is easier.
