ON THE RUSSIAN LANGUAGE AND CULTURE OF SPEECH
ON THE TOPIC: LITERARY LANGUAGE AND ITS BASIC FEATURES
KHABAROVSK, 2011
Introduction
Conclusion
Introduction
In different eras, among different peoples and nationalities, in different historical conditions, specific systems of social variants of language develop - social stratifications of languages. There was a need for a single so-called supra-territorial version of the language for the state with special communicative properties (increased accuracy of speech, the ability to convey a variety of logical relations, stability over time, specialization, etc.). After all, state power must convey its orders to all residents of the country; these orders must be understandable to everyone. This need is satisfied by the emergence of its own literary language.
Correctness of speech is one of the problems that has interested scientists of different generations. This problem becomes especially acute in times of transition for society, when social problems push cultural ones into the background. In times of stability, public opinion, the prestige of education, the desire for high level personal culture are the factors that restrain the process of clogging the literary language with non-literary units. In unstable eras there is simply no time to pay attention to these issues. A kind of censorship still exists at the level of the media, diplomacy, office work, and science, but it is not so strict.
The state of the language today resembles the situation in the first decades of the 20th century, a time when a whole stream of non-normative elements “poured” into literary speech. It was in the first decades of the 20th century that active work began on studying language norms and compiling dictionaries. During this period, G.O. wrote about the correctness and richness of speech. Vinokur, V.V. Vinogradov, K.S. Skvortsov, S.I. Ozhegov and other linguists.
1. Origin of the Russian literary language
The literary Russian language began to take shape many centuries ago. There are still debates in science about its basis, about the role of the Church Slavonic language in its origin. The Russian language belongs to the Indo-European family. Its origins go back to the existence and collapse of the common European (proto-Slavic) language. From this pan-Slavic unity (VI-VII centuries) several groups are distinguished: eastern, western and southern. It was in the East Slavic group that the Russian language would later emerge (XV century).
The Kiev state used a mixed language, which was called Church Slavonic. All liturgical literature, being copied from Old Church Slavonic Byzantine and Bulgarian sources, reflected the norms of the Old Church Slavonic language. However, words and elements of the Old Russian language penetrated into this literature. In parallel to this style of language, there was also secular and business literature. If examples of the Church Slavonic language are the "Psalter", "Gospel" and so on, then examples of the secular and business language of Ancient Rus' are considered to be "The Tale of Igor's Host", "The Tale of Bygone Years", "Russian Truth".
In Ancient Rus' there were two types of literary language:
) book Slavic literary language, based on Old Church Slavonic and used primarily in church literature;
) a folk literary language based on the living Old Russian language and used in secular literature.
Further development literary language continued in the works of great Russian writers, publicists, and in the diverse activities of the Russian people. Late XIX V. to the present - the second period of development of the modern literary Russian language. This period is characterized by well-established language norms, but these norms are being improved over time.
2. Literary language: its signs and functions
Any common language exists in 4 main forms, one of which is normative, the rest are non-normative. The main form of the national language is the literary language. A literary language is an exemplary, standardized and codified form of the national language, which has a rich lexical fund and a developed system of styles.
Signs of a literary language:
Normalization is a relatively stable way of expression, reflecting the historical patterns of language development, based on the language system, enshrined in the best examples of literature and preferred by the educated part of society. Literary language allows for the phenomenon of norm variation (though in different eras of the development of a literary language, the amplitude of variations in variations varies).
codification (fixation of normative units in dictionaries, reference books, grammars),
rich vocabulary,
the presence of functional styles, each of which has special features,
compulsory for all native speakers to learn and use,
widespread use for communication in all spheres of public life (education and science, politics, office work, media, culture, etc.),
presence of rich fiction in this language,
relative stability of vocabulary,
consumption throughout all territories of the nation.
The main task of the literary language is to unite the nation and preserve its cultural heritage.
Functions of literary language
Modern Russian literary language multifunctional, i.e. it performs the functions of the everyday language of literate people, the language of science, journalism, public administration, the language of culture, literature, education, the media, etc. However, in certain situations the functions of a literary language may be limited (for example, it may function mainly in written speech, while territorial dialects are used in oral speech). Literary language is used in various spheres of public and individual activities person. Literary language differs from the language of fiction, but at the same time it seems to be formed from it. The main feature of the language of fiction is that it performs a great aesthetic function, which is capable of influencing the reader with the help of figurative content specially organized according to language. This also includes the function of communication, which is implemented in dialogues and polylogues actively created on the pages of works. Highest rate the language of fiction is its aesthetic motivation, i.e. When using language in an aesthetic function, the form of the message acts not only as a sign of one meaning or another, but also turns out to be significant in itself, represents a system of linguistic means for expressing figurative content, and ultimately the ideological and artistic concept, namely, it becomes aesthetically motivated . The language of fiction contains not only literary standardized speech, but also the individual style of the author and the speech of the characters created by the author. Stylized literary texts and the speech of the characters suggest a deviation from the norm, the creation of an individual style and expressive text.
For artistic speech The use of all linguistic means is typical. Linguistic means include not only words and expressions of the literary language, but also elements of vernacular, jargon, and territorial dialects. The language of fiction is closely related to the system of images of works of art; it widely uses epithets, metaphors, personification, animation of inanimate objects, etc. Many means of literary language acquire a special function: antonyms and synonyms are used to more colorfully describe characters, their characters, habits, habits, etc.
The usual concept of a linguistic norm is not applicable to the language of fiction. In the language of fiction, everything that serves to accurately express the author’s thoughts is correct. This is the main difference between the language of fiction and literary language.
3. The concept of literary language norms
A literary norm is the rules of pronunciation, formation and use of linguistic units in speech. Otherwise, a norm is defined as objectively established rules of implementation language system. The norms are divided depending on the regulated tier of the language into the following types:
) orthoepic (norms for pronunciation of words and their forms),
2) accentological (stress norms, special case orthoepic),
3) lexical (norms for the use of words, depending on their meaning),
) phraseological (norms for the use of phraseological units),
) word formation (rules for creating new words according to models known in the language),
) morphological (rules of formation and change of parts of speech),
) syntactic (rules for combining word forms into phrases and sentences). The last two norms are often combined under the general name “grammatical norms”, since morphology and syntax are closely interrelated.
Depending on the regulated form of speech, norms are divided into:
those that are typical only for oral speech(this is orthoepic and accentological;
characteristic only of written speech (spelling, punctuation);
regulating both oral and written speech (all other types).
A literary norm is characterized by its obligatory nature for all native speakers, its use in all spheres of public life, its relative stability, and its prevalence across all tiers of the language system.
Main function the norm is protective, its purpose is to preserve the richness of the literary language. The sources of changes in the norms of the literary language are different: living, colloquial speech, local dialects, vernacular, professional jargon, other languages.
Changes in norms are preceded by the appearance of their variants, which actually exist in the language at a certain stage of its development and are actively used by its speakers. Variants of norms are reflected in dictionaries of modern literary language.
The historical change in the norms of literary language is a natural, objective phenomenon. It does not depend on the will and desire of individual language speakers. The development of society, changes in the social way of life, the emergence of new traditions, and the functioning of literature lead to the constant updating of the literary language and its norms.
literary language speech sign
Conclusion
The norm of a literary language is a rather complex phenomenon that changes over time. Changes in the norm are especially noticeable in oral speech, since it is oral speech that represents the most mobile layer of the language. The result of changing norms is the emergence of options. The variability of pronunciation and stress norms became the subject of this work.
The "Orthoepic Dictionary of the Russian Language" records a significant number of spelling variants for words. Some options are equal (for example, bar? rzha and barge?), in other words, one of the options is the main one (for example, industry and additional obsolete industry).
The work also discusses issues related to the types of norms, with the characteristics of various norms of the modern Russian literary language. In science, there are types of norms depending on the level of language, as well as norms that are strictly mandatory and not strictly mandatory. The last division is connected precisely with the availability of options.
The work presents issues related to orthoepic (phonetic and accentological) norms. The basic rules for the pronunciation of vowels and consonants are described.
List of sources used
1. Borunova S.N. and others. Orthoepic dictionary of the Russian language: Pronunciation, stress, grammatical forms. Approximately 63,500 words / Edited by R.I. Avanesova. M., 1983.
Vvedenskaya L.A. and others. Culture and art of speech. - Rostov-on-Don, 1995.
Golub I.B. Stylistics of the Russian language. - M., 2003. - 448 p.
Gorbachevich K.S. Word variation and linguistic norm. - L., 1978.
Gorbachevich K.S. Norms of modern Russian literary language. - M., 1981.
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Table of contents
Introduction……………………………………………………………………….1
Literary language…………………………………………………………….2
Dialect, jargon, argotism…………………………………………………….4
Book and literary spoken language……………………………...6
Conclusion…………………………………………………………………….8
References……………………………………………………………...9
Introduction
“Language is created by the people,” said A.M. Gorky.- The division of a language into literary and folk means only that we have, so to speak, a “raw” language and one processed by masters. The first who perfectly understood this was Pushkin, he was the first to show how to use the speech material of the people, how to process it.”
So what is literary language? There is a clear definition for this phrase.
Literary language is basically a national language, processed and creatively enriched by masters of words, therefore it must be considered as the highest achievement speech culture people. This is the highest form of the national language, the result of the speech creativity of the entire people, led by its outstanding masters of words. The means and norms of literary expression are not only created by all native speakers, but - what is very important - are carefully and carefully protected by society as a great cultural value. The activity of masters of words, as it were, leads and crowns this entire creative process.
But such rigor in defining the greatest Russian language is unthinkable. For many centuries, great Russian poets tried to give a literary touch to the everyday Russian language.
In our work, the goal is to consider the emergence of the term “literary language”, its changes over time and its varieties.
Literary language
Literary language is the common written language of one or another people, and sometimes several peoples - the language of official business documents, school teaching, written and everyday communication, science, journalism, fiction, all manifestations of culture expressed in verbal form, often written, but sometimes verbally. That is why there are differences between written-book and oral-spoken forms of literary language, the emergence, correlation and interaction of which are subject to certain historical patterns.
It is difficult to point out another linguistic phenomenon that would be understood as differently as literary language. Some are convinced that the literary language is the same national language, only “polished” by masters of the language, i.e. writers, word artists; Proponents of this view, first of all, have in mind the literary language of modern times and, moreover, among peoples with a rich literary literature. Others believe that literary language is a written language, a bookish language, opposed to living speech, spoken language. Still others believe that a literary language is a language that is generally significant for a given people, in contrast to dialect and jargon, which do not have signs of such universal significance. Supporters of this view sometimes argue that a literary language can exist in the preliterate period as the language of folk verbal and poetic creativity or customary law.
The presence of different understandings of the phenomenon denoted by the term “literary language” indicates an insufficient disclosure by science of the specifics of this phenomenon, its place in the general system of language, its function, and its social role. Meanwhile, despite all the differences in the understanding of this phenomenon, the literary language is a linguistic reality that is not subject to any doubt. Literary language is a means of developing social life, material and spiritual progress of a given people, an instrument of social struggle, as well as a means of educating the masses and introducing them to the achievements of national culture, science and technology. Literary language is always the result of collective creative activity.
The study of a literary language, no matter how it is understood, entails the study of such phenomena as “dialects”, “jargons”, on the one hand, “spoken language”, “written language” - on the other, linguistic, speech and literary “style” " - from the third. The study of a literary language is closely connected with the study of literature, the history of language, and the cultural history of a given people. Given some historical uncertainty in understanding the essence of the literary language, it is one of the most effective tools of enlightenment and is in contact with the tasks of education and school. All this testifies to the paramount scientific and practical importance of the problem of literary language. 1
Literary language can be divided into territorial language (dialects), social language (jargon, vernacular), and professional language (argotism). It is also worth highlighting the division of the literary language into varieties; book literary language and spoken literary language.
Dialect, jargon and argotism
Dialect – (from the Greek “to speak, to express”) a type of language that is used as a means of communication between people connected by the same territory. A dialect is a complete system of speech communication (oral or signed, but not necessarily written) with its own vocabulary and grammar. Traditionally, dialects were understood primarily as rural territorial dialects.
In sociolinguistics and at the everyday level, dialects are contrasted with the standard or literary language. From this point of view, the dialect is characterized by the following features:
- social, age and partly gender limitations of the circle of dialect speakers (in Russia these are mainly older generation village residents);
limiting the scope of use of the dialect to family and everyday situations;
the formation of semi-dialects as a result of the interaction and mutual influence of various dialects and the associated restructuring of relations between the elements of dialect systems;
leveling out the originality of dialect speech under the influence of the literary language (through the media, books, education system, etc.) and the emergence of intermediate forms - for example, dialect-colored literary speech.
Jargon is a social dialect; different from the general spoken language specific vocabulary and phraseology, expressiveness of turns and special use of word-formation means, but does not have its own phonetic and grammatical system. Part of the slang vocabulary belongs not to one, but to many (including those that have already disappeared) social groups. Moving from one jargon to another, the words of their “common fund” can change form and meaning: “to darken” in the slang - “to hide the loot”, then - “to be cunning (during interrogation)”, in modern youth jargon - “to speak unclearly, to evade from the answer."
The main function of jargon is to express membership in a relatively autonomous social group through the use of specific words, forms and expressions. Sometimes the term jargon is used to refer to distorted, incorrect speech. The jargon vocabulary is built on the basis of the literary language through rethinking, metaphorization, redesign, sound truncation, etc., as well as the active assimilation of foreign words and morphemes. For example: cool - “fashionable”, “business”, hut - “apartment”, bucks - “dollars”, wheelbarrow - “car”, jerk - “go”, basketball - “basketball”, dude - “guy” from the gypsy language . In modern language, jargon has become widespread, especially in the language of youth (youth slang). Social jargon first appeared in the 18th century among the nobles (“salon” jargon) (example: “plaisir” - pleasure).
Argotisms (French, singular argotisme), words and expressions of colloquial speech, borrowed from various social and professional dialects. In a semantically transformed form, they are used in common speech and slang, retaining their bright expressive coloring. In the language of fiction, argotisms are used as a means of stylistic characterization, mainly in the speech of characters, as well as in the author’s speech in a “fairy tale” manner of narration.
Book and spoken literary language
Book language is an achievement and heritage of culture. He is the main keeper and transmitter of cultural information. All types of indirect (distant) communication are carried out by means of book language. Scientific works, fiction and educational literature, diplomatic and business correspondence, newspaper and magazine products and much more cannot be imagined without the bookish literary language. Its functions are enormous and become even more complex with the development of civilization. The modern Russian book and literary language is a powerful tool of communication. It contains all the means necessary for a variety of communication purposes, and, above all, for the expression of abstract concepts and relationships.
The complex connections traced by scientists and writers in the material and spiritual world are described in scientific language. Oral, colloquial speech is not suitable for this: it is impossible to transmit from mouth to mouth syntactically cumbersome texts, rich in special terminology and complex in semantic terms. The property of book-written speech to preserve the text and thereby strengthen the ability of the literary language to be a connection between generations is one of the main properties of the book language.
A colloquial variety of literary language, used in various types of everyday relationships between people, subject to ease of communication. Conversational speech is distinguished from bookish and written speech not only by its form (this is oral and, moreover, predominantly dialogical speech), but also by such features as unpreparedness, unplanning, spontaneousness (compare, for example, with reading a report, the text of which is written in advance), immediacy of contact between participants in communication.
The spoken variety of the literary language, unlike the bookish and written one, is not subject to targeted normalization, but it has certain norms as a result of speech tradition. This type of literary language is not so clearly divided into speech genres. However, here, too, various speech features can be distinguished - depending on the conditions in which communication takes place, on the relationship of the participants in the conversation, etc. compare, for example, a conversation between friends, colleagues, a conversation at a table, a conversation between an adult and a child, a dialogue between a seller and a buyer and etc.
Conclusion
The splendor of the Russian language is famous among all nations. As for the term “literary language,” one of its disadvantages is a certain ambiguity - the possibility of using it in two meanings: as a designation of the language of fiction and as a designation of a processed form of language.
On the other hand, the unchanging and constant quality of a literary language, which always distinguishes it from other forms of existence of a language and most fully expresses its specificity, is the processing of language and the selection and relative regulation associated with it.
We have introduced several varieties of literary language:
- Dialect,
Jargon,
Argotism,
Book literary language,
Spoken literary language.
Bibliography
1.
Vinogradov V.V. “Selected works. History of the Russian literary language" - M., 1978. - P. 288-297
2.
Shakhmatov A. A. “Essay on the modern Russian literary language” - M., 1941.
The content of the article
LITERARY LANGUAGE, a supradialectal subsystem (form of existence) of the national language, which is characterized by such features as normativity, codification, multifunctionality, stylistic differentiation, high social prestige among speakers of a given national language. Literary language is the main means of serving the communicative needs of society; it is contrasted with the uncodified subsystems of the national language - territorial dialects, urban koine (urban vernacular), professional and social jargons.
The concept of a literary language can be defined both on the basis of the linguistic properties inherent in a given subsystem of the national language, and by delimiting the totality of speakers of this subsystem, isolating it from general composition people who speak a given language. The first method of definition is linguistic, the second is sociological.
An example of a linguistic approach to clarifying the essence of a literary language is the definition given by M.V. Panov: “If in one of the synchronous varieties of the language of a given people the non-functional variety of units is overcome (it is less than in other varieties), then this variety serves as a literary language according to towards others."
This definition reflects such important properties of a literary language as its consistent normalization (not only the presence of a single norm, but also its conscious cultivation), the universally binding nature of its norms for all speakers of a given literary language, the communicatively appropriate use of means (it stems from the tendency to functional differentiation) and some others. The definition has a differentiating power: it delimits the literary language from other social and functional subsystems of the national language.
However, to solve some problems in the study of language, the linguistic approach to defining a literary language is not sufficient. For example, it does not answer the question of which segments of the population should be considered carriers of a given subsystem, and in this sense, a definition based on purely linguistic considerations is non-operational. In this case, there is a different, “external” principle for defining the concept of “literary language” - through the totality of its speakers.
In accordance with this principle, the literary language is that subsystem of the national language spoken by persons who have the following three characteristics: (1) this language is their native language; (2) they were born and/or long time(all or most of their life) live in the city; (3) they have higher or secondary education obtained in educational institutions where all subjects are taught in a given language. This definition corresponds to the traditional idea of a literary language as the language of an educated, cultural part of the people. Let us show, using the example of the modern Russian literary language, how important these characteristics are for identifying the totality of speakers of the literary form of the national language.
Firstly, persons for whom Russian is not their native language, even in the case when the speaker speaks it fluently, discover in their speech features that are, to one degree or another, due to the influence of their native language. This deprives the researcher of the opportunity to consider such people linguistically homogeneous with persons for whom Russian is their native language.
Secondly, it is quite obvious that the city contributes to the collision and mutual influence of different dialectal elements of speech, the mixing of dialects. The influence of the language of radio, television, the press, and the speech of the educated strata of the population in the city is much more intense than in the countryside. In addition, in the village the literary language is opposed by an organized system of one dialect (albeit in modern conditions- significantly shaken by the influence of literary speech), and in the city - a kind of interdialect, the components of which are in unstable, changing relationships with each other. This leads to the leveling of dialectal speech features or to their localization (cf. “family languages”) or to their complete displacement under the pressure of literary speech. Therefore, people, although born in the countryside, but living in cities throughout their entire adult life, should also be included, along with native city dwellers, in the concept of “city residents” and, other things being equal, in the concept of “native speakers of a literary language.”
Thirdly, the criterion “higher or secondary education” is important because years of study at school and university contribute to a more complete, more perfect mastery of the norms of the literary language, eliminating from a person’s speech features that contradict these norms, reflecting dialect or vernacular usage.
If the need for the three above-mentioned features as a collective criterion for identifying the community of speakers of a literary language seems to be beyond doubt, then their sufficiency requires more detailed justification. And that's why.
Intuitively, it is quite clear that within the community thus identified there are quite large differences in the degree of mastery of the literary norm. In fact, a university professor - and a worker with a secondary education, a journalist or writer who professionally deals with words - and a factory engineer or geologist, whose professions are not based on the use of language, a literature teacher - and a taxi driver, a native Muscovite - and a native of a Kostroma village who has lived in the capital since childhood - all these and other representatives of heterogeneous social, professional and territorial groups find themselves united into one group of “native speakers of a literary language.” Meanwhile, it is obvious that they speak this language differently and the degree to which their speech approaches ideal literary speech is very different. They are located, as it were, at different distances from the “normative core” of the literary language: the deeper a person’s linguistic culture, the stronger his professional connection with the word, the closer his speech is to this core, the more perfect his command of the literary norm and, on the other hand, the more justified conscious deviations from it in practical speech activity.
What unites such socially, professionally, and culturally diverse groups of people, besides the three characteristics we have put forward? All of them, in their speech practice, follow the literary linguistic tradition (and not, say, dialect or vernacular), and are guided by the literary norm.
Researchers note one thing important property Russian literary language of our days: in contrast to languages such as, for example, Latin, which was used as a literary language in a number of countries of medieval Europe, as well as artificial languages such as Esperanto, which are initially literary and do not have branches into functional or social subsystems, - The Russian literary language is heterogeneous (this property is also inherent in many other modern literary languages). It seems that this conclusion contradicts the main axiom associated with the status of the literary language - the axiom about the unity and universality of the norm for all speakers of the literary language, about its codification as one of the main properties. However, in reality, both the named axiom and the property of heterogeneity not only coexist together, but also complement and support each other. In fact, considered from the proper linguistic, communicative and social points of view, the property of heterogeneity of a literary language results in such characteristic phenomena as variable ways of expressing the same meaning (the system of paraphrasing rests on this, without which true mastery of any natural language is unthinkable ), multiplicity of implementation of systemic potentials, stylistic and communicative gradation of literary language means, the use of certain categories of linguistic units as means of social symbolism (cf. social differences in the methods of farewell provided for by the norm of the modern Russian literary language: from socially unmarked Goodbye to vernacular Bye and slang hop And ciao) and so on. The norm of a literary language, having the property of unity and universality, does not prohibit, but presupposes different, variable ways of speech. And from this point of view, variability - as one of the manifestations of the more general property of heterogeneity - is natural, normal phenomenon in literary language.
The heterogeneity of a literary language is also manifested in its locally and socially determined variability: with a general and uniform set of means of a literary language (phonetic, lexical, grammatical) and the rules for their use, these means differ in the frequency of their use different groups speakers.
The heterogeneity of a literary language has both social and linguistic manifestations; it is reflected in three main forms: 1) in the heterogeneity of the composition of the carriers - substrate heterogeneity; 2) in the variation of linguistic means depending on the social characteristics of speakers (age, social affiliation, profession, level of education, territorial characteristics, etc.) - social, or stratification, heterogeneity; 3) in the variation of linguistic means depending on communicative and stylistic factors - functional heterogeneity.
Division of literary language in functional and stylistic terms
“stepwise”: the first, most obvious, is the dichotomy of book-written and spoken languages. Calling this division of the literary language into two functional varieties “the most general and most indisputable,” D.N. Shmelev wrote about this: “At all stages of the development of the literary language, even when overcoming the alienation of the written language in one way or another, with the dimming of the halo simply literacy and mastery of a special book language, speakers in general never lose the feeling of the difference between “how one can say” and “how one should write.”
Book language
– achievement and heritage of culture. He is the main carrier and transmitter of cultural information. All types of indirect, distant communication are carried out by means of book language. Scientific works, fiction, business correspondence, legislation, newspaper and magazine products, and even such oral in form, but generally strictly codified areas of the use of literary language as radio and television, cannot be imagined without book language.
Modern bookish and literary language is a powerful means of communication. Unlike another variety - colloquial literary language (and even more so in contrast to such subsystems of the national language as dialects and vernacular), it is multifunctional: suitable for use in the most different areas communication, for different purposes and to express a wide variety of content. The written form, as the main form of implementation of the book language, determines another important property of it: writing “extends the lifespan of each text (oral tradition gradually changes the text); thereby it enhances the ability of the literary language to be a link between generations. Writing stabilizes the language, slows down its development - and thereby improves it: for a literary language, slow development is good" (M.V. Panov).
Colloquial variety of literary language
is an independent and self-sufficient system within the general system of the literary language, with its own set of units and rules for combining them with each other, used by native speakers of the literary language in conditions of direct, unprepared communication in informal relations between speakers.
A spoken literary language is not codified: it certainly has certain norms (thanks to which, for example, it is easy to distinguish the oral speech of a native speaker of a literary language from the oral speech of a native speaker of a dialect or vernacular), but these norms have developed historically and are not consciously regulated by anyone or enshrined in in the form of any rules and recommendations. Thus, codification/non-codification is another, and very significant, feature that distinguishes bookish and colloquial varieties of a literary language.
Functional styles.
The next level of division of the literary language is the division of each of its varieties - book and spoken languages - into functional styles. According to V.V. Vinogradov’s definition, a functional style is “a socially conscious and functionally conditioned, internally unified set of techniques for using, selecting and combining means of speech communication in the sphere of a particular popular, national language, correlated with other similar methods of expression that serve for other purposes, perform other functions in the speech social practice of a given people.” In short, variants of the literary language, determined by various spheres of communication, are functional styles.
In the modern Russian book literary language, the following functional styles are distinguished: scientific, official business, journalistic, religious preaching. Sometimes the language of fiction is also classified as functional styles. But this is not true: in a prose or poetic text, both elements of all of the specified styles of literary language, as well as units of uncodified subsystems - dialects, vernacular, jargons can be used (cf., for example, the prose of I.E. Babel, M.M. Zoshchenko, V. P. Astafiev, V. P. Aksenov, some poems by E. A. Evtushenko, A. A. Voznesensky, etc.). The writer subordinates the selection and use of these means to the artistic and aesthetic goals that he seeks to achieve in his work.
Spoken language is not so clearly divided into functional styles, which is quite understandable: the book language is consciously cultivated, society as a whole and its various groups and institutions are interested in the functional flexibility of the book language (without this it is impossible effective development such spheres of public life as science, lawmaking, office work, mass communication, etc.); spoken language develops spontaneously, without directional efforts from society. However, here too some differences can be observed, determined by (a) the scope of application of the spoken language, (b) the communicative purposes of speech, (c) social characteristics speaker and listener and the psychological relationship between them, as well as some other variables.
Thus, family conversations and dialogues between colleagues differ; conversation with a child and communication between adults; speech acts of condemnation or reproach and speech acts of request or exhortation, etc.
Speech genres.
Functional styles are divided into speech genres. A speech genre is a set of speech works (texts or statements), which has, on the one hand, specific features that distinguish this genre from others, and on the other, a certain commonality, which is determined by the belonging of a certain group of genres to one functional style.
Thus, within the scientific style, speech genres such as article, monograph, textbook, review, overview, annotation, abstract, scientific commentary on the text, lecture, report on a special topic, etc. are distinguished. The official business style is implemented in the texts of such speech genres, as a law, regulation, decree, resolution, diplomatic note, communiqué, different kinds legal documentation: statement of claim, interrogation protocol, indictment, examination report, cassation appeal, etc.; Such genres are widespread formal business style, as a statement, certificate, explanatory note, report, announcement, etc. Journalistic style includes such speech genres as correspondence in a newspaper, essay, report, review of international themes, interview, sports commentary, speech at a meeting, etc.
In functional-stylistic varieties of spoken language, speech genres are not as clearly opposed to each other as speech genres of book language. In addition, the genre and stylistic diversity of colloquial speech has not yet been sufficiently studied. The results available in this area of research allow us to distinguish the following speech genres of spoken language. Based on the number of speakers and the nature of their participation in communication, they distinguish story, dialogue and polylogue (i.e. “conversation of several persons”: this term arose on the basis of the erroneous isolation in the Greek word “dialogue” of a part with the meaning “two” and, accordingly , understanding it as a “conversation between two persons”). According to the target orientation, the nature of the situation and the social roles of the participants in communication, we can distinguish such varieties as a family conversation at the dinner table, a dialogue between colleagues on everyday and professional topics, an adult’s reprimand to a child, a conversation between a person and an animal (for example, a dog), an altercation, various genres of speech invective and some others.
Characteristic properties of literary language.
So, the literary language is characterized by the following properties that distinguish it from other subsystems of the national language:
1) normalization; Moreover, the literary norm is the result not only of linguistic tradition, but also of purposeful codification, enshrined in grammars and dictionaries;
2) consistent functional differentiation of means and the associated constant tendency towards functional differentiation of options;
3) multifunctionality: the literary language is capable of serving the communicative needs of any field of activity;
4) communicative expediency; this property naturally follows from the division of the literary language into functional styles and speech genres;
5) stability and a certain conservatism of the literary language, its slow change: the literary norm must lag behind the development of living speech (cf. the famous aphorism of A.M. Peshkovsky: “The norm is recognized as what was, and partly what is, but by no means what will happen"). This property of a literary language has exceptional cultural significance: it provides a connection between successive generations of speakers of a given national language and their mutual understanding.
In social and communicative relations, one of the most important properties
The literary language is characterized by its high social prestige: being a component of culture, the literary language is a communicative subsystem of the national language that all speakers are guided by, regardless of whether they speak this subsystem or any other.
Modern Russian is the national language of the Russian people, a form of Russian national culture. It represents a historically established linguistic community and unites the entire set of linguistic means of the Russian people, including all Russian dialects and dialects, as well as various jargons.
Russian language is included in the group Slavic languages, which form a separate branch in the Indo-European family of languages and are divided into three subgroups:
Eastern (Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian);
Western (Polish, Czech, Slovak, Lusatian);
Southern (Bulgarian, Macedonian, Serbo-Croatian, Slovenian).
The modern Russian literary language is the language of fiction, science, print, radio, television, theater, school, and government acts. Its most important feature is its normalization, which means that the composition of the vocabulary of the literary language is strictly selected from the general treasury of the national language; the meaning and use of words, pronunciation, spelling, and the formation of grammatical forms follow a generally accepted pattern.
The Russian literary language has two forms - oral and written, which are characterized by features both in terms of lexical composition and grammatical structure, since they are designed for different types perception - auditory and visual. Written literary language differs from oral language in the greater complexity of syntax, the predominance of abstract vocabulary, as well as terminological vocabulary, predominantly international in its use.
The Russian language performs three functions:
National Russian language;
One of the languages of interethnic communication of the peoples of Russia;
One of the most important world languages.
Writers and public figures praise the Russian language. Also M.V. Lomonosov admired its wealth, emphasizing that the Russian language “has natural abundance, beauty and strength than any other European language does not yield." N.M. Karamzin noted: “How much time does it take to completely master the spirit of your language? Voltaire rightly said that at the age of six you can learn all the main languages, but that throughout your life you need to learn your natural language. We Russians have even more work than others.”
The Russian language is the national language of the Russian people. But not all Russians speak exactly the same way. Differences in speech depend on the cultural level of a person, on his profession, lifestyle, age, on whether he lives in a city or in a village, and, finally, on where this city or this village is located. The Russian language is the totality of its grammatical forms, the pronunciation features of all Russian people.
Among the varieties of the Russian language, the Russian literary language clearly stands out. It is the language of books, newspapers, theater, radio and television, government agencies And educational institutions. It has a number of features that distinguish it from other forms of language existence: refinement, normalization, breadth of social functioning, universal binding for all members of the team, a variety of speech styles used in various spheres of communication. As the highest form of the national language, the literary language can to a certain extent be contrasted with other varieties - vernacular, dialects and jargons.
Vernacular speech is the peculiarities of the language of townspeople of different localities, consisting in the use of words, expressions, grammatical forms, stresses, etc. that are not accepted in the literary language. Vernacular speech, unlike dialects, is not limited to territory. In the speech of people of the north and south, west and east, you can find the words just now, in vain, theirs, probably, belly, get away, grammatical forms of affairs, engineer, places, chatter, incorrect stress in the words briefcase, parterre, belt, etc.
Dialects are Russian folk dialects (mainly peasant dialects). The dialects have their own vocabulary, their own grammatical and phonetic features. This is easy to notice by comparing, for example, the speech of a Smolensk peasant and an Arkhangelsk Pomor, rural residents Ryazan region and Vladimir region, etc.
Jargon is the speech of a group of people united by a common interest, occupation, profession, etc.
Vernacular
Vernacular speech is a unique phenomenon characteristic of the Russian language and widespread in it. However, philological science has not yet developed any strict definition of this phenomenon. First of all, there is no clear idea of who makes up the circle of vernacular speakers. Due to the fact that recently elements of vernacular have penetrated into various spheres of social communication and are used in speech by representatives of various social strata, the question of its essence and boundaries of functioning is becoming increasingly relevant.
Colloquialisms are words, expressions, grammatical forms and phrases used in literary language, usually for the purpose of a reduced, rough description of the subject, as well as simple casual speech with these words, forms and phrases. Vernacular speech is characteristic of poorly educated native speakers, and clearly deviates from existing literary language norms. The term “vernacular” was introduced by Dmitry Ushakov in the meaning of “the speech of the uneducated and semi-educated urban population who do not know literary norms.”
Vernacular speech is characteristic of non-literary urban colloquial speech, which contains many recent dialect words, words of colloquial origin, new formations that arise to characterize various everyday phenomena, and word-forming variants of neutral vocabulary. A colloquial word is used in literary language as a stylistic means to give speech a tone of humorous, dismissive, ironic, rude, etc. Often these words are expressive, expressive synonyms for words in neutral vocabulary. The connection between the literary language and spoken language is very strong. More precisely, colloquial speech is part of the literary language. The changes that occur in language are a product of the development of society, its spiritual and material culture, science and technology. Replenishment of the vocabulary of a literary language is carried out by the transition of colloquial, colloquial words into written speech. The most typical places for the implementation of vernacular: family (communication within the family and with relatives), “gatherings” in the courtyard of communal houses, court (witness testimony, reception with a judge), doctor’s office (patient’s story about an illness) and a few others.
In modern vernacular, two temporary layers are distinguished - the layer of old, traditional means, clearly revealing their dialectal origin, and a layer of relatively new means that came into common speech mainly from social jargons. In accordance with this, a distinction is made between vernacular-1 and vernacular-2.
The speakers of vernacular-1 are elderly city dwellers with a low educational and cultural level; Among the speakers of vernacular-2, representatives of the middle and younger generations predominate, also without sufficient education and characterized by a relatively low cultural level.
The main features of vernacular at the phonetic level are:
General carelessness of speech. Blurred picture of speech in articulatory and acoustic terms;
Low volume, fast pace, minimal mouth opening, unintelligible speech;
Oversimplification of consonant clusters. Example: “skok” instead of “how much”, “right now” instead of “now”, “kada” instead of “when”;
Inexpressive intonation.
Russian vernacular is characterized by special forms of address: bro, fellow countryman, zyoma, kid (to a young man - a speaker of the vernacular), father, dad (to an elderly man), mother (to an elderly woman). The forms of proper names are formed differently than in the literary language, for example, with the help of suffixes: -ok, -yan, -(yu)ha: Lenok (from Lena, Elena), Sanyok, Sanya (from Sasha, Alexander), Tolyan (from Tolya, Anatoly). Elderly speakers of vernacular are addressed using the words uncle and aunt: Uncle Kolya, Aunt Lyuba. It is typical for a speaker of the vernacular to address themselves in a familiar manner, regardless of the age and gender of the interlocutor. Vernacular-2 is characterized by the use of diminutives (i.e. words with diminutive suffixes).
In the field of phonetics, the specificity of vernacular-1 lies not in the set of phonemes - it is basically the same as in the literary language, but in their speech implementation, and especially in their compatibility with each other. In particular, the following phenomena attract attention:
- elimination of the so-called gaping by inserting between two adjacent vowels [j] or [v]: [p"ijan"ina] piano, [kakava] cocoa;
- contraction of vowels (this phenomenon is also characteristic of the colloquial variety of the literary language, but in common speech -1 it is represented much more widely and consistently): [pr"ibr"ila] acquired, [n'kavo] from no one, [by law] outside the window ;
- assimilation of vowels of neighboring syllables: [karas"in] kerosene, [p"ir" im"ida] pyramid;
- simplification of consonant groups by inserting a vowel: [zhyz "in"] life, [rub "ate"] ruble;
- simplification of the syllabic structure of words, especially in foreign languages: [v"it"inar] veterinarian, [matafon] tape recorder;
- cutting off part of the consonantal combinations at the end of the word: [infark] heart attack, [sp"iktak] performance;
- dissimilation of consonants by place and method of formation: [kal"idor] corridor, [s"kl"itar"] secretary, [tranvai] tram;
- assimilation of consonants in place and method of formation, mainly in the endings of verb forms of 2 l. units h., accompanied by intersyllabic assimilation of vowels: [bais"i] you are afraid, [voz"is"i] you are fiddling;
- preservation of some types of assimilative softening of consonants, which are non-normative for the modern literary language: ko[n"f"]eta, ko[n"v"]ert, o[t"v"]etit, la[p"k"]i ;
Dialects
By its nature, the national language is heterogeneous. This is explained by the heterogeneity of the ethnic group itself as a community of people. Firstly, people unite based on territoriality, place of residence. Residents of rural areas use dialects as a means of communication. Dialects (from the Greek dialektos conversation, patois, adverb) are varieties of the national language, opposed to the literary language, serving as a means of communication in speech groups distinguished on a geographical (territorial) basis. A territorial dialect is a means of communication among the population of a historically established region, characterized by specific ethnographic features.
The presence of dialects is the result of feudal fragmentation during the formation of Ancient Russia, then the Russian state. In the era of capitalism, despite the expansion of contacts between speakers of different dialects and the formation of a national language, territorial dialects are preserved, although they undergo some changes. In the 20th century, especially in the second half, in connection with the development of the media (print, radio, cinema, television, intervision), there is a process of degradation of dialects, their disappearance.
The study of dialects is of interest:
WITH historical point point of view: dialects retain archaic features that are not reflected in the literary language;
From the point of view of the formation of a literary language: on the basis of which main dialect and then the national language did the literary language develop; what features of other dialects does it borrow; how the literary language subsequently influences dialects and how dialects influence the literary language.
Secondly, social reasons contribute to the unification of people: common profession, occupation, interests, social status. For such societies, the means of communication is the social dialect. Since the social dialect has many varieties, in the scientific literature the terms jargon and argot are also used to name them.
Dialects are characterized by phonetic, lexical, and syntactic features that are revealed when comparing dialects with each other, as well as with the literary language. For example, a striking dialectal feature - tsokanie (two affricates [ts] and [ch'] of the literary language are not distinguished, pronounced as [ts]) - characterizes Arkhangelsk, Vologda, Pskov and some other dialects. Some dialects of the Oryol, Kursk, Tambov and Bryansk regions are characterized by the pronunciation [s] instead of the affricate [ts]: Kurisa naulise yaiso demolished. Another teaser notes clinking glasses (the affricates [ts] and [ch’] are pronounced like [ch’]): A sheep ran past our porch.
Dialectal differences can be small, so that speakers of different dialects easily understand each other, but they can also be quite significant.
Under the influence of the literary language, dialects lose their most significant differences from it, become unified, lose their independence, partially enriching the literary language with some of their own features.
Jargon
We often hear the words “argot”, “jargon”, “slang”. And we often use jargon in our speech, in the opinion of some we pollute it, and in the opinion of others we transform the literary Russian language. Jargons began to exist since man learned to speak. This is the speech of some social or other group united by common interests, containing many words and expressions other than common language, including artificial, sometimes conditional. But what is jargon? Jargons are words and expressions that exist to quickly convey information in certain circles of people; they carry primitivism, which, when used by a narrow circle of people, is not dangerous, because it is very small in a separate group and people who use this jargon in their free time do not hear or use it. When jargon begins to enter society, it begins to acquire a threatening character. So why? For what? To whom? And in what situations is jargon necessary?
1) When a person seeks to destroy formality for easier mutual understanding or when one wants closer communication. For example, this phrase belongs to the owner of a large company: “Why are you huddling in the corners? Shall we grab a hundred grams?”
2) When you want to demonstrate your breadth of knowledge: “As knowledgeable people say,” etc.
H) When you want to achieve the maximum effect of what you say.
Jargon permeates all levels of society, the media, cinema and even literature.
Nowadays you don’t have to look far to find modern slang. You just need to turn on the radio at high frequencies, where the presenters, or DJs as they call themselves, compete with each other in the “sharp” word. With the advent of crime chronicles on television, pervasive argotisms gained access there too.
Jargon can be found even in movies, although mostly in action films. This is evident even from the names, for example: “Informer”, “Katala”, “Cop Wars”, “Lawlessness”.
Jargon has its own aesthetics, its own ethics. For a jargon speaker, something that is rude and witty and goes against generally accepted norms is considered attractive. The main thing in this case is originality. To bring people closer to their conventional world, to make completely harmless things funny and not scary - one of the goals of jargon.
There are many opinions about the attractiveness of jargon. Thus, the author of an article on the interjection function of jargon, O.B. Turbina, asserts their attractiveness with rough wit, originality, at all costs, and shocking opposition to the accepted norm. To quote the words of D.S. Likhachev: “The common opinion defines jargon as rude, vulgar, cynical. The argotists themselves tend to perceive it as a biting, daring, dashing and witty language,” she concludes: “Jargon is often an exponent of a special, vulgar and even criminal ideology. Together with the slang word, a concept unworthy of receiving the right to exist enters our lives. Not only the language, but also the speaker’s worldview becomes coarsened and primitive.
The liberalization of language takes wild forms in relation to curses, the “obscene language”, which, despite all the formidable protests, has always been tenacious in Russian oral life. Traditionally, even by name, an “unprintable word” today appears on the pages of newspapers and modern plays. The author of one of the articles devoted to this problem, I. Ovchinnikova (“Freedom does not cancel decency”), sees in this a loss of the instinct of self-preservation and concern for the health of the nation. “Of course,” the author writes, “everyone knows curse words, including the dirtiest ones, because they are written on all fences. But any of us also knows that these words are forbidden. And when vulgar language is heard from the stage, from the screen, and is replicated, they seem to receive citizenship rights. And since other creative people do not know how to limit themselves, to keep them within the limits established over centuries, it means that power must be used to protect the eyes and ears of those who do not want their whole life to turn into a station toilet.”
Computer jargon is a completely new type of argot that has appeared recently. In the late 80s, along with the computer collapse, foreign terms and abbreviations, most often untranslatable, entered people’s speech. And gradually e-mail became “soap”, and Pentium became “penty”. Simultaneously with the jargon of programmers, a specific slang of people who are interested in technology, including computing, began to form.
Computer jargon contains colloquial speech with a familiar flavor. In it, as in other jargons, there are many Anglicisms. Many words were borrowed from others professional groups. For example, “teapot” (computer programmer) is taken from the argot of motorists. But still, the most popular of most systems turned out to be the method of metaphorization. Verb-associative metaphors from youth slang are also popular, sometimes meaning the same thing. Slow down (youth) - think slowly, think poorly and sit back, spend time playing computer games. Many computer jargon words are formed through word formation. For example, “walker” - from “to wander” with the suffix “K” - is a game where the hero is thrown into a certain area in order to find something or save someone he needs.
And now I will try to classify everything that has been said, based on the materials of the Computer magazine, and express it in examples:
1)Named from computer equipment:
clave, pedal - keyboard;
mouse, mouse, rat, tailed - “mouse” type manipulator;
armpit, mousehole, rag - rug, for the “mouse”;
2) Nicknames of people engaged in one or another type of activity:
the rapist is a programmer writing in the C programming language;
Hacker - programmer-cracker;
Teapot is a novice computer user;
CONCLUSION
Jargons unite people of the same occupation, and in the case of youth jargon, people of the same age. Although studying at school or college is a meager type of activity. But schoolchildren are growing up - and it is quite possible that in a few decades “lace” or “hawala” will become common words for the “great and mighty.” It seemed like 6s decent word- “hole”. But no, it was once just as informal and had the same meaning as the current word “brake”. Diverging slightly from the Russian language, I will say that in some languages there are also similar transformations. Thus, the French word tete (head) comes from the Latin testa. But in Latin the head was called caput, and teata meant “hard shell.” So in modern Russian the head is called either a filly or a skull.
No one can predict the fate of this or that jargon. A word can be forgotten in a year, or it can remain for centuries...
I have not touched upon many types of jargons, less well-known, but no less interesting, popular ones and those that have just appeared. For example, the slang of cellular subscribers, army slang, slang of businessmen, drug addicts, fans of Japanese art - anime, beggars, even representatives of non-traditional sexual orientation. The latter are a separate conversation.
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Literary language is not only the language of writers, but also a sign of an intelligent and educated person. Unfortunately, not only do people not own it, but not everyone knows about its existence, including some modern writers. The works are written very in simple words, jargon and slang are used in large quantities, which is unacceptable for a literary language. For those who want to master the language of poets and writers, the features of a literary language will be described.
Definition
Literary language is the highest form of language, which is opposed to vernaculars, jargon, and dialectisms. Some experts contrast it with the spoken form because they consider it a written language (for example, in the Middle Ages they only wrote in the literary language).
This form is considered a historical category because this category is formed in the process of linguistic development. A literary language is an indicator of the level of national culture, because works are created in it and cultural people communicate in it.
There are many definitions: some are constructed from a linguistic point of view, others use delimitation with the help of native speakers of the language. Each definition is correct, the main thing is that you know how to distinguish it from other categories. Below we will give the concept of features of a literary language.
The formation of a cultural linguistic form
The basis of the literary language is considered to be a dialect, which is dominant in the political, economic and cultural center of the state. The Moscow dialect served as the basis for the Russian language. The Church Slavonic language had a great influence on the formation of this species. The first written translations into our language were Christian books, which later affected the development of the language. For a long time, the teaching of writing took place through the church, which undoubtedly influenced the culture's written language.
But one should not combine literary and artistic language, because in the first case it is a broad concept that includes the variety with which works are written. The hallmarks of a literary language are its strict normalization and accessibility to everyone, while some authors of works of art do not have sufficient knowledge of the literary form of the language in the broad sense.
How to identify writers' language
The cultural form of speech does not tolerate the excessive use of slang words, bureaucracy, speech cliches, and vernacular. There are norms that help preserve the purity of the language by providing a linguistic standard. These rules can be found in grammar reference books and dictionaries.
There are main features of a literary language:
Literary language as part of the national
Each language has its own national limits, so it reflects everything cultural heritage of its people, its history. Due to ethnic characteristics, each language is unique and original, and has characteristic folk features. National and literary languages are closely interconnected, which creates limitless possibilities of the language. But it is still possible to identify the characteristics of a national literary language.
The form under consideration, along with the national one, also includes the use of non-literary styles. Every nation has its own dialect. Russian is divided into Northern Russian, Central Russian and Southern Russian. But some words various reasons fall into the literary language. They will be called dialectisms. Their use is permissible only from a stylistic point of view, that is, it is considered possible in a certain context.
One of the types of national language is jargon - these are words used by a certain group of people. Its use is also possible in literary language; jargon was especially widely used in Russian literature in post-Soviet times. Their use is strictly regulated by literary norms:
- characteristics of the hero;
- with proof of the appropriateness of use.
Dialect is another feature of the national language, which is characteristic of people living in the same territory or united along social lines. In literature, dialect words can be used in the following cases:
Signs of the modern Russian literary language
In the traditional sense, the language has been considered modern since the time of A.S. Pushkin. Since one of the main features of a literary language is a norm, you should know on what norms the modern one is based:
- accent norms;
- orthoepic;
- lexical;
- phraseological;
- word formation;
- spelling;
- punctuation;
- grammatical;
- syntactic;
- stylistic.
A literary language is characterized by strict adherence to all norms in order to preserve the entire cultural heritage. But the modern literary language has problems related specifically to maintaining the purity of the language, namely the large use of depreciated vocabulary (foul language), a large number of borrowings, and the frequent use of jargon.
Functional-style types
As was written above, the characteristics of a literary language include its stylistic diversity.
- Written and book speech, which is divided into official business, journalistic and scientific.
- Artistic speech.
The colloquial form of speech is not included here, because it does not have strict regulation, that is, one of the main features of a literary language.
Russian literary language at the end of the 20th - beginning of the 21st centuries.
The processes occurring in language are a natural phenomenon, because it is not a static unit. It also changes and develops with society. In the same way, in our time, new signs of a literary language have appeared. Now the media is becoming an influential sphere, which is forming new functional linguistic features. With the development of the Internet, a mixed written and spoken form of speech begins to develop.
Literary language performs a very complex and important task: to preserve accumulated knowledge, unite all cultural and national heritage and pass everything on to new generations, preserving national identity.
