“The body’s immune system” - Nonspecific protective factors. Immunity. Specific mechanisms of immunity. Factors. Specific immunity. Thymus. Critical period. Protective barrier. Antigen. Morbidity of the child population. A trace in the history of mankind. Infection. Central lymphoid organs. Increasing the child's body's defenses. National calendar preventive vaccinations. Vaccine prevention. Serums. Artificial immunity.
“Immune system” - Factors that weaken the immune system. Two main factors that have a major impact on the effectiveness of the immune system: 1. A person’s lifestyle 2. Environment. Express diagnostics of the effectiveness of the immune system. Alcohol contributes to the formation of an immunodeficiency state: taking two glasses of alcohol reduces immunity to 1/3 of the level for several days. Carbonated drinks reduce the effectiveness of the immune system.
“Internal environment of the human body” - Composition of the internal environment of the body. Blood cells. Human circulatory system. Protein. Liquid part of blood. Shaped elements. Colorless liquid. Name it in one word. Cells circulatory system. Hollow muscular organ. Name of cells. Movement of lymph. Hematopoietic organ. Blood plates. Internal environment of the body. Red blood cells. Intellectual warm-up. Liquid connective tissue. Complete the logical chain.
“History of Anatomy” - History of the development of anatomy, physiology and medicine. William Harvey. Burdenko Nikolai Nilovich. Pirogov Nikolai Ivanovich. Luigi Galvani. Pasteur. Aristotle. Mechnikov Ilya Ilyich. Botkin Sergey Petrovich. Paracelsus. Ukhtomsky Alexey Alekseevich. Ibn Sina. Claudius Galen. Li Shi-Zhen. Andreas Vesalius. Louis Pasteur. Hippocrates. Sechenov Ivan Mikhailovich. Pavlov Ivan Petrovich.
“Elements in the human body” - I find friends everywhere: In minerals and in water, Without me you are like without hands, Without me, the fire has gone out! (Oxygen). And if you destroy it right away, you will get two gas. (Water). Although my composition is complex, it is impossible to live without me, I am an excellent solvent of Thirst for the best intoxicator! Water. Content of “life metals” in the human body. Content of organogenic elements in the human body. The role of nutrients in the human body.
"Immunity" - Classes of immunoglobulins. Helper T cell activation. Cytokines. Humoral immunity. Origin of cells. The mechanism of genetic control of the immune response. Immunoglobulin E. Immunoglobulin molecule. Elements of the immune system. Structure of the main loci. Immunoglobulin A. Foreign elements. The structure of antibodies. Genetic basis of immunity. Structure of the antigen-binding site. Secretion of antibodies.
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ORGANS OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM ARE DIVIDED INTO CENTRAL AND PERIPHERAL. THE CENTRAL (PRIMARY) ORGANS OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM INCLUDE THE BONE MARROW AND THE THYMUS. IN THE CENTRAL ORGANS OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM MATURATION AND DIFFERENTIATION OF IMMUNE SYSTEM CELLS FROM STEM CELLS OCCUR. IN THE PERIPHERAL (SECONDARY) ORGANS THE MATURATION OF LYMPHOID CELLS OCCURS TO THE FINAL STAGE OF DIFFERENTIATION. THESE INCLUDE THE SLEEN, LYMPH NODES AND LYMPHOID TISSUE OF THE MUCOUS MEMBRANES.
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CENTRAL ORGANS OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM DURING PERIODS OF EMBRYONAL AND POSTEMBRYONAL DEVELOPMENT
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CENTRAL ORGANS OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM Bone marrow. All the formed elements of blood are formed here. Hematopoietic tissue is represented by cylindrical accumulations around arterioles. Forms cords that are separated from each other by venous sinuses. The latter flow into the central sinusoid. The cells in the cords are arranged in islands. Stem cells are localized mainly in the peripheral part of the bone marrow canal. As they mature, they move toward the center, where they penetrate the sinusoids and then enter the blood. Myeloid cells in bone marrow make up 60-65% of cells. Lymphoid - 10-15%. 60% of cells are immature cells. The rest are mature or newly entered into the bone marrow. Every day, about 200 million cells migrate from the bone marrow to the periphery, which is 50% of their total number. In the human bone marrow, intensive maturation of all types of cells occurs, except for T cells. The latter pass only initial stages differentiation (pro-T cells, then migrating to the thymus). Plasma cells are also found here, constituting up to 2% of the total number of cells, and producing antibodies.
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THYMUS. SPECIALIZED EXCLUSIVELY IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF T-LYMPHOCYTES. HAS AN EPITHELIAL FRAMEWORK IN WHICH T-LYMPHOCYTES DEVELOP. IMMATURE T-LYMPHOCYTES THAT DEVELOP IN THE THYMUS ARE CALLED THYMOCYTES. MATURATING T-LYMPHOCYTES ARE TRANSIT CELLS THAT ENTER THE THYMUS IN THE FORM OF EARLY PREcursors FROM THE BONE MARROW (PROT-CELLS) AND AFTER MATURATION, EMIGRATE TO THE PERIPHERAL DEPARTMENT OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM. THREE MAIN EVENTS OCCURRING IN THE PROCESS OF T-CELL MATURATION IN THE THYMUS: 1. APPEARANCE OF ANTIGEN-RECOGNIZING T-CELL RECEPTORS IN MATURING THYMOCYTES. 2. DIFFERENTIATION OF T-CELLS INTO SUB-POPULATIONS (CD4 AND CD8). 3. SELECTION (SELECTION) OF T-LYMPHOCYTE CLONES CAPABLE OF RECOGNIZING ONLY ALIEN ANTIGENS PRESENTED TO T-CELLS BY MOLECULES OF THE MAIN HISTOSCOMPATIBILITY COMPLEX OF THEIR OWN ORGANISM. THE HUMAN THYMUS CONSISTS OF TWO LOBES. EACH OF THEM IS LIMITED BY A CAPSULE, FROM WHICH CONNECTIVE TISSUE SEPTIONS GO INSIDE. SEPTATIONS DIVIDE THE PERIPHERAL PART OF THE ORGAN - THE CORTICK - into lobes. THE INNER PART OF THE ORGAN IS CALLED THE BRAIN.
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PROTIMOCYTES ENTER THE CORTICAL LAYER AND AS THEY MATURATE, THEY MOVE TO THE MEDIUM LAYER. THE DEVELOPMENT TIME OF THYMOCYTES INTO MATURE T-CELLS IS 20 DAYS. IMMATURE T-CELLS ENTER THE THYMUS WITHOUT HAVING T-CELL MARKERS ON THE MEMBRANE: CD3, CD4, CD8, T-CELL RECEPTOR. AT THE EARLY STAGES OF MATURATION, ALL OF THE ABOVE MARKERS APPEAR ON THEIR MEMBRANE, THEN THE CELLS MULTIPLY AND PASS TWO STAGES OF SELECTION. 1. POSITIVE SELECTION - SELECTION FOR THE ABILITY TO RECOGNIZE OWN MOLECULES OF THE MAIN HISTOSCOMPATIBILITY COMPLEX WITH THE HELP OF A T-CELL RECEPTOR. CELLS THAT ARE NOT ABLE TO RECOGNIZE THEIR OWN MOLECULES OF THE MAIN HISTO COMPATIBILITY COMPLEX DIE BY APOPTOSIS (PROGRAMMED CELL DEATH). SURVIVING THYMOCYTES LOSE ONE OF FOUR T-CELL MARKERS - EITHER CD4 OR CD8 MOLECULE. AS A RESULT, THE SO-CALLED “DOUBLE POSITIVE” (CD4 CD8) THYMOCYTES BECOME SINGLE POSITIVE. EITHER THE CD4 OR CD8 MOLECULE IS EXPRESSED ON THEIR MEMBRANE. THUS, THE DIFFERENCES ARE ESTABLISHED BETWEEN THE TWO MAIN POPULATIONS OF T-CELLS - CYTOTOXIC CD8 CELLS AND HELPER CD4 CELLS. 2. NEGATIVE SELECTION - SELECTION OF CELLS FOR THEIR ABILITY TO NOT RECOGNIZE THE ORGANISM’S OWN ANTIGENS. AT THIS STAGE, POTENTIAL AUTOREACTIVE CELLS ARE ELIMINATED, THAT IS, CELLS WHOSE RECEPTOR IS CAPABLE OF RECOGNIZING ANTIGENS OF THEIR OWN BODY. NEGATIVE SELECTION LAYS THE FOUNDATIONS FOR THE FORMATION OF TOLERANCE, THAT IS, THE IMMUNE SYSTEM’S IMMUNE RESPONSES TO ITS OWN ANTIGENS. AFTER TWO STAGES OF SELECTION, ONLY 2% OF THYMOCYTES SURVIVE. SURVIVING THYMOCYTES MIGRATE TO THE MEDULAR LAYER AND THEN LEAVE INTO THE BLOOD, BECOMING “NAIVE” T-LYMPHOCYTES.
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PERIPHERAL LYMPHOID ORGANS Scattered throughout the body. The main function of peripheral lymphoid organs is the activation of naive T and B lymphocytes with the subsequent formation of effector lymphocytes. There are encapsulated peripheral organs immune system (spleen and lymph nodes) and non-encapsulated lymphoid organs and tissues.
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LYMPH NODES CONSTITUTE THE MAIN MASS OF ORGANIZED LYMPHOID TISSUE. THEY ARE LOCATED REGIONALLY AND ARE NAMED ACCORDING TO THE LOCATION (ARMILLARY, INGUINAL, PAROTICAL, ETC.). LYMPH NODES PROTECT THE BODY FROM ANTIGENS THAT PENETRATE THROUGH THE SKIN AND MUCOUS MEMBRANES. FOREIGN ANTIGENS ARE TRANSPORTED TO THE REGIONAL LYMPH NODES THROUGH LYMPHATIC VESSELS, OR WITH THE HELP OF SPECIALIZED ANTIGEN PRESENTING CELLS, OR WITH THE FLOW OF FLUID. IN THE LYMPH NODES, ANTIGENS ARE PRESENTED TO NAIVE T-LYMPHOCYTES BY PROFESSIONAL ANTIGEN-PRESENTING CELLS. THE RESULT OF THE INTERACTION OF T-CELLS AND ANTIGEN-PRESENTING CELLS IS THE CONVERSION OF NAIVE T-LYMPHOCYTES INTO MATURE EFFECTOR CELLS CAPABLE OF PERFORMING PROTECTIVE FUNCTIONS. LYMPH NODES HAVE A B-CELL CORTICAL AREA (CORTICAL ZONE), A T-CELL PARACORTICAL AREA (ZONE) AND A CENTRAL, MEDULLARY (BRAIN) ZONE FORMED BY CELLULAR TRADS CONTAINING T- AND B-LI MPHOCYTES, PLASMA CELLS AND MACROPHAGES. THE CORTICAL AND PARACORTICAL AREAS ARE SEPARATED BY CONNECTIVE TISSUE TRABECULAS INTO RADIAL SECTORS.
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LYMPH ENTERS THE NODE THROUGH SEVERAL AFFERENT LYMPHATIC VESSELS THROUGH THE SUBCAPSULAR ZONE COVERING THE CORTICAL AREA. FROM THE LYMPH NODE LYMPH EXITS THROUGH A SINGLE OUTFERING (EFFERENT) LYMPHATIC VESSEL IN THE AREA OF THE SO-CALLED GATE. THROUGH THE GATE THROUGH THE CORRESPONDING VESSELS, BLOOD ENTERS AND OUTSIDE THE LYMPH NODE. IN THE CORTICAL REGION ARE LOCATED LYMPHOID FOLLICLES, CONTAINING MULTIPLICATION CENTERS, OR “GERMINAL CENTERS,” IN WHICH THE MATURATION OF B CELLS THAT MEET AN ANTIGEN OCCURS.
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THE MATURATION PROCESS IS CALLED AFFINE MATURATION. IT IS ACCOMPANIED BY SOMATIC HYPERMUTATIONS OF VARIABLE IMMUNOGLOBULIN GENES, OCCURING WITH A FREQUENCY 10 TIMES HIGHER THAN THE FREQUENCY OF SPONTANEOUS MUTATIONS. SOMATIC HYPERMUTATIONS LEAD TO INCREASED ANTIBODY AFFINITY WITH THE SUBSEQUENT REPRODUCTION AND CONVERSION OF B CELLS INTO PLASMA ANTIBODY PRODUCING CELLS. PLASMA CELLS ARE THE FINAL STAGE OF B-LYMPHOCYTE MATURATION. T-LYMPHOCYTES ARE LOCALIZED IN THE PARACORTICAL AREA. IT'S CALLED T-DEPENDENT. THE T-DEPENDENT AREA CONTAINS MANY T-CELLS AND CELLS WITH MULTIPLE PROGRESSES (DENDRITIC INTERDIGITAL CELLS). THESE CELLS ARE ANTIGEN-PRESENTING CELLS THAT ARRIVED INTO THE LYMPH NODE THROUGH AFFERENT LYMPHATIC VESSELS AFTER MEETING A FOREIGN ANTIGEN AT THE PERIPHERY. NAIVE T-LYMPHOCYTES, IN THEIR TURN, ENTER THE LYMPH NODES WITH THE LYMPH CURRENT AND THROUGH POST-CAPILLARY VENULES, HAVING AREAS OF THE SO-CALLED HIGH ENDOTHELIUM. IN THE T-CELL AREA, NAIVE T-LYMPHOCYTES ARE ACTIVATED BY ANTI-GEN-PRESENTING DENDRITIC CELLS. ACTIVATION RESULTS IN PROLIFERATION AND FORMATION OF CLONES OF EFFECTOR T-LYMPHOCYTES, WHICH ARE ALSO CALLED ARMED T-CELLS. THE LATTER ARE THE FINAL STAGE OF MATURATION AND DIFFERENTIATION OF T-LYMPHOCYTES. THEY LEAVE THE LYMPH NODES TO PERFORM EFFECTIVE FUNCTIONS FOR WHICH THEY WERE PROGRAMMED BY ALL PREVIOUS DEVELOPMENT.
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THE SPLEN IS A LARGE LYMPHOID ORGAN, DIFFERENT FROM THE LYMPH NODES BY THE PRESENCE OF A LARGE NUMBER OF RED CYTES. THE MAIN IMMUNOLOGICAL FUNCTION IS THE ACCUMULATION OF ANTIGENS BROUGHT WITH THE BLOOD AND THE ACTIVATION OF T- AND B-LYMPHOCYTES REACTING TO THE ANTIGEN BROUGHT BY THE BLOOD. THE SPLEN HAS TWO MAIN TYPES OF TISSUE: THE WHITE PULP AND THE RED PULP. THE WHITE PULP IS CONSISTED OF LYMPHOID TISSUE, WHICH FORMES PERIARTERIOLARY LYMPHOID COUPLINGS AROUND THE ARTERIOLES. THE COUPLERS HAVE T- AND B-CELL AREAS. A T-DEPENDENT AREA OF THE CLUTCH, SIMILAR TO THE T-DEPENDENT AREA OF LYMPH NODES, DIRECTLY SURROUNDS THE ARTERIOLE. B-CELL FOLLICLES CONSTITUTE THE B-CELL REGION AND ARE LOCATED CLOSE TO THE EDGE OF THE MOUNT. THERE ARE REPRODUCTION CENTERS IN THE FOLLICLES, SIMILAR TO THE GERMINAL CENTERS OF LYMPH NODES. IN THE CENTERS OF REPRODUCTION, DENDRITIC CELLS AND MACROPHAGES ARE LOCALIZED, PRESENTING ANTIGEN TO B-CELLS WITH THE SUBSEQUENT CONVERSION OF THE LATTER INTO PLASMA CELLS. MATURATING PLASMA CELLS PASS THROUGH VASCULAR JINDERS INTO THE RED PULP. RED PULP IS A METHOUS NETWORK FORMED BY VENOUS SINUSOIDS, CELLULAR TRADS AND FILLED WITH RED CELLS, PLATELETS, MACROPHAGES, AND OTHER CELLS OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM. THE RED PULP IS A SITE OF DEPOSITATION OF erythrocytes and platelets. THE CAPILLARIES WITH WHICH END THE CENTRAL ARTERIOLES OF THE WHITE PULP OPEN FREELY IN BOTH THE WHITE PULP AND IN THE RED PULP TRADS. BLOOD CELLS, HAVING REACHED THE HEAVY RED PULP, ARE RETAINED IN THEM. HERE MACROPHAGES RECOGNIZE AND PHAGOCYTE SURVIVED erythrocytes and platelets. PLASMA CELLS, MOVED INTO THE WHITE PULP, CARRY OUT THE SYNTHESIS OF IMMUNOGLOBULINS. BLOOD CELLS NOT ABSORBED AND NOT DESTROYED BY PHAGOCYTES PASS THROUGH THE EPITHELIAL LINING OF VENOUS SINUSOIDS AND RETURN TO THE BLOOD STREAM TOGETHER WITH PROTEINS AND OTHER PLASMA COMPONENTS.
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NON-ENCAPSULATED LYMPHOID TISSUE Most of the non-encapsulated lymphoid tissue is located in the mucous membranes. In addition, non-encapsulated lymphoid tissue is localized in the skin and other tissues. Lymphoid tissue of the mucous membranes protects only the mucous surfaces. This distinguishes it from the lymph nodes, which protect against antigens that penetrate both the mucous membranes and the skin. The main effector mechanism of local immunity at the mucosal level is the production and transport of secretory antibodies IgA class directly onto the surface of the epithelium. Most often, foreign antigens enter the body through the mucous membranes. In this regard, antibodies of the IgA class are produced in the body in the greatest quantities relative to antibodies of other isotypes (up to 3 g per day). The lymphoid tissue of the mucous membranes includes: - Lymphoid organs and formations associated with gastrointestinal tract(GALT - gut-associated lymphoid tissues). Includes lymphoid organs of the peripharyngeal ring (tonsils, adenoids), appendix, Peyer's patches, intraepithelial lymphocytes of the intestinal mucosa. - Lymphoid tissue associated with bronchi and bronchioles (BALT - bronchial-associated lymphoid tissue), as well as intraepithelial lymphocytes of the mucous membrane respiratory tract. - Lymphoid tissue of other mucous membranes (MALT - mucosal associated lymphoid tissue), including as the main component the lymphoid tissue of the mucous membrane of the urogenital tract. Lymphoid tissue of the mucosa is most often localized in the basal plate of the mucous membranes (lamina propria) and in the submucosa. An example of mucosal lymphoid tissue is Peyer's patches, which are usually found in the lower part ileum. Each plaque is adjacent to a portion of the intestinal epithelium called follicle-associated epithelium. This area contains so-called M cells. Bacteria and other foreign antigens enter the subepithelial layer from the intestinal lumen through M cells.
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THE BASIC MASS OF LYMPHOCYTES IN PEYER'S PATCH ARE LOCATED IN A B-CELL FOLLICLE WITH A GERMINAL CENTER IN THE MIDDLE. T-CELL ZONES SURROUND THE FOLLICLE CLOSE TO THE EPITHELIAL CELL LAYER. THE MAIN FUNCTIONAL LOAD OF PEYER'S PATCHES IS THE ACTIVATION OF B-LYMPHOCYTES AND THEIR DIFFERENTIATION INTO PLASMA CYTES PRODUCING ANTIBODIES OF THE IGA AND IGE CLASSES. IN ADDITION TO ORGANIZED LYMPHOID TISSUE, IN THE EPITHELIAL LAYER OF THE MUCOUS AND IN LAMINA PROPRIA, THERE ARE ALSO SINGLE DISSEMINATED T-LYMPHOCYTES. THEY CONTAIN BOTH ΑΒ T CELL RECEPTOR AND ΓΔ T CELL RECEPTOR. IN ADDITION TO LYMPHOID TISSUE OF MUCOUS SURFACES, NON-ENCAPSULATED LYMPHOID TISSUE INCLUDES: - SKIN-ASSOCIATED LYMPHOID TISSUE AND INTRAEPITHELIAL LYMPHOCYTES OF THE SKIN; - LYMPH, TRANSPORTING ALIEN ANTIGENS AND CELLS OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM; - PERIPHERAL BLOOD, UNITING ALL ORGANS AND TISSUE AND PERFORMING A TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION FUNCTION; - CLUMPS OF LYMPHOID CELLS AND SINGLE LYMPHOID CELLS OF OTHER ORGANS AND TISSUE. AN EXAMPLE COULD BE LIVER LYMPHOCYTES. THE LIVER PERFORMES QUITE IMPORTANT IMMUNOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS, ALTHOUGH IT IS NOT CONSIDERED AN ORGAN OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM FOR AN ADULT BODY. NEVERTHELESS, ALMOST HALF OF THE ORGANISM'S TISSUE MACROPHAGES ARE LOCALIZED IN IT. THEY PHAGOCYTATE AND DISSOLVE IMMUNE COMPLEXES THAT BRING RED CELLS HERE ON THEIR SURFACE. IN ADDITION, IT IS ASSUMED THAT LYMPHOCYTES LOCALIZED IN THE LIVER AND IN THE INTESTINAL SUBMUCOSA HAVE SUPPRESSOR FUNCTIONS AND PROVIDE CONSTANT MAINTENANCE OF IMMUNOLOGICAL TOLERANCE (UNRESPONDENCE) TO FOOD. Kalinin Andrey Vyacheslavovich Doctor of Medical Sciences Professor of the Department of Preventive Medicine
and basics of health
The main task of the immune system
Formation of an immune response tofalling into internal environment
foreign substances, that is, protection
organism at the cellular level.
1. Cellular immunity is carried out
direct contact of lymphocytes (main
cells of the immune system) with foreign
agents. This is how it develops
antitumor, antiviral
protection, transplant rejection reactions.
Mechanism of immune response
2. As a reaction to pathogensmicroorganisms, foreign cells and proteins
comes into force humoral immunity(from lat.
umor - moisture, liquid, related to liquid
internal environment of the body).
Humoral immunity plays a major role
in protecting the body from bacteria present in
extracellular space and in the blood.
It is based on the production of specific
proteins - antibodies that circulate throughout
bloodstream and fight against antigens -
foreign molecules.
Anatomy of the immune system
Central organs of the immune system:Red bone marrow is where
Stem cells are “stored”. Depending
depending on the situation, stem cell
differentiates into immune cells -
lymphoid (B lymphocytes) or
myeloid series.
Thymus gland (thymus) - place
maturation of T lymphocytes. Bone marrow supplies precursor cells for various
populations of lymphocytes and macrophages, in
specific immune responses occur in it
reactions. It serves as the main source
serum immunoglobulins. The thymus gland (thymus) plays a leading role
role in the regulation of the T-lymphocyte population. Thymus
supplies lymphocytes in which for growth and
development of lymphoid organs and cellular
populations the embryo needs different tissues.
By differentiating, lymphocytes thanks to
release of humoral substances is obtained
antigenic markers.
The cortex is densely filled with lymphocytes,
which are influenced by thymic factors. IN
the medulla contains mature T-lymphocytes,
leaving the thymus gland and joining the
circulation as T-helpers, T-killers, T-suppressors.
Anatomy of the immune system
Peripheral organs of the immune system:spleen, tonsils, lymph nodes and
lymphatic formations of the intestines and others
organs that have maturation zones
immune cells.
Cells of the immune system - B and T lymphocytes,
monocytes, macrophages, neutro-, baso-,
eozonophiles, obese, epithelial cells,
fibroblasts.
Biomolecules – immunoglobulins, mono- and
cytokines, antigens, receptors and others. The spleen is populated by lymphocytes in
late embryonic period after
birth. The white pulp contains
thymus-dependent and thymus-independent
zones that are populated by T- and Blymphocytes. Entering the body
antigens induce the formation
lymphoblasts in the thymus-dependent zone
spleen, and in the thymus-independent zone
proliferation of lymphocytes and
formation of plasma cells.
Immune system cells
Immunocompetent cellsthe human body are T- and B-lymphocytes.
Immune system cells
T lymphocytes arise in the embryonicthymus. In the postembryonic period after
maturation, T-lymphocytes settle in T-zones
peripheral lymphoid tissue. After
stimulation (activation) by a certain antigen
T lymphocytes transform into large
transformed T-lymphocytes, of which
then the T-cell executive arises.
T cells are involved in:
1) cellular immunity;
2) regulation of B-cell activity;
3) delayed (IV) type hypersensitivity.
Immune system cells
The following subpopulations of T lymphocytes are distinguished:1) T-helpers. Programmed to induce reproduction
and differentiation of other cell types. They induce
secretion of antibodies by B lymphocytes and stimulated by monocytes,
mast cells and T-killer precursors to participate in
cellular immune reactions. This subpopulation is activated
antigens associated with MHC class II gene products
– class II molecules, represented predominantly on
surfaces of B cells and macrophages;
2) suppressor T cells. Genetically programmed to
suppressor activity, respond predominantly to
products of MHC class I genes. They bind antigen and
secrete factors that inactivate T-helper cells;
3) T-killers. Recognize antigen in combination with their own
MHC class I molecules. They secrete cytotoxic
lymphokines.
Immune system cells
B lymphocytes are divided into two subpopulations: B1 and B2.B1 lymphocytes undergo primary differentiation
in Peyer's patches, then found on
surfaces of serous cavities. During the humoral
immune response can turn into
plasma cells that synthesize only IgM. For their
transformations do not always require T helper cells.
B2 lymphocytes undergo differentiation in the bone
brain, then in the red pulp of the spleen and lymph nodes.
Their transformation into plasma cells occurs with the participation of helper cells. Such plasma cells are capable of synthesizing
all human Ig classes.
Immune system cells
Memory B cells are long-lived B lymphocytes derived from mature B cells as a result of stimulation with antigenwith the participation of T-lymphocytes. When repeated
antigen stimulation of these cells
activated much more easily than the original ones
B cells. They provide (with the participation of T cells) the rapid synthesis of large
amount of antibodies upon repeated
penetration of antigen into the body.
Immune system cells
Macrophages are different from lymphocytes,but also play important role in the immune
answer. They can be:
1) antigen-processing cells when
the occurrence of a response;
2) phagocytes in the form of an executive
link
Specificity of the immune response
Depends:1. From the type of antigen (foreign substance) - its
properties, composition, molecular weight, dose,
duration of contact with the body.
2. From immunological reactivity, that is
state of the body. This is precisely the factor
which are directed different kinds prevention
immunity (hardening, taking immunocorrectors,
vitamins).
3. From the conditions external environment. They can both enhance
protective reaction of the body and prevent
normal functioning of the immune system.
Forms of immune response
The immune response is a chain of sequentialcomplex cooperative processes going on in
immune system in response to action
antigen in the body.
Forms of immune response
There are:1) primary immune response
(occurs at the first meeting with
antigen);
2) secondary immune response
(occurs when meeting again
antigen).
Immune response
Any immune response consists of two phases:1) inductive; presentation and
antigen recognition. A complex
cooperation of cells followed by
proliferation and differentiation;
2) productive; products are detected
immune response.
During the primary immune response, inductive
the phase can last a week, with secondary – up to
3 days due to memory cells.
Immune response
In the immune response, antigens that enter the bodyinteract with antigen presenting cells
(macrophages) that express antigenic
determinants on the cell surface and deliver
information about the antigen to peripheral organs
immune system, where T-helper cells are stimulated.
Further, the immune response is possible in the form of one of
three options:
1) cellular immune response;
2) humoral immune response;
3) immunological tolerance.
Cellular immune response
The cellular immune response is a function of T lymphocytes. Education takes placeeffector cells - T-killers, capable of
destroy cells that have an antigenic structure
by direct cytotoxicity and by synthesis
lymphokines that are involved in the processes
interactions of cells (macrophages, T cells, B cells) during the immune response. In regulation
The immune response involves two subtypes of T cells:
T-helpers enhance the immune response, T-suppressors have the opposite effect.
Humoral immune response
Humoral immunity is a functionB cells. T helper cells that received
antigenic information, transmit it to Blymphocytes. B lymphocytes form
clone of antibody-producing cells. At
this is where B cells transform
into plasma cells that secrete
immunoglobulins (antibodies), which
have specific activity against
invading antigen. The resulting antibodies enter into
interaction with antigen
formation of the AG – AT complex, which
triggers non-specific
defense mechanisms. These
complexes activate the system
complement. Interaction of the complex
AG – AT s mast cells leads to
degranulation and release of mediators
inflammation - histamine and serotonin.
Immunological tolerance
At a low dose of antigen it developsimmunological tolerance. Wherein
the antigen is recognized, but as a result
there is no cell production or
development of a humoral immune response.
Characteristics of the immune response
1) specificity (reactivity is directed onlyto a specific agent called
antigen);
2) potentiation (the ability to produce
enhanced response with constant admission to
organism of the same antigen);
3) immunological memory (ability
recognize and produce an enhanced response
against the same antigen when repeated
entering the body, even if the first and
subsequent hits occur through
long periods of time).
Types of immunities
Natural - it is purchased inas a result of an infectious
diseases (this active immunity) or
transmitted from mother to fetus during
pregnancy (passive immunity).
Species - when the organism is not susceptible
to some diseases of others
animals.
Types of immunities
Artificial - obtained byvaccine administration (active) or
serum (passive).
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Immunity
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Updating knowledge
1. What components make up the internal environment of the body? 2. What is homeostasis? 3. What are the main functions of blood? 4. What does blood contain? 5. What is plasma, what is its composition and significance? 6. Characterize blood cells. 7. What is phagocytosis?
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"Protective properties of blood":
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"Protective properties of blood":
Germs await people at every step. How can we explain that when infected with microbes a person does not always get sick, and if he does get sick, then the disease does not develop in the same way for everyone? Infection and disease - different processes. A person can become infected, that is, be a carrier of a variety of microbes, including very dangerous ones, but not always get sick. For some diseases, for every 8-10 cases of infection carriers, one case of the disease occurs. People are especially often carriers of the tuberculosis bacillus. The body actively fights the infection, delays its development, and the person does not get sick. Infection turns into a disease if the body is weakened (immunity is reduced from malnutrition, overwork, nervous shock, etc.) The development of colds (flu, sore throat, pneumonia) is facilitated by cooling the body. Alcohol has a detrimental effect on the course of diseases - it suppresses the immune system.
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Immunity is the body’s ability to find foreign substances (antigens) and get rid of them.
Antigens (microbes and the poisons they secrete) cause in the body immune reaction.
In progress historical development The immune system has developed in the human and animal bodies.
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Organs of the immune system.
Bone marrow - blood cells are formed. Thymus (thymus gland) - lymphocytes and antibodies are formed Lymph nodes - lymphocytes and antibodies are formed, retain and neutralize bacteria and toxins. Spleen – produces antibodies, reproduces phagocytes.
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Lymphoid tissue in digestive systems e. Maturation of lymphocytes. Palatine tonsils. (Lymphoid tissue in respiratory systems e.) Maturation of lymphocytes.
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Immunity is distinguished:
cellular
The destruction of foreign bodies is carried out by cells, for example phagocytes. Cellular immunity was discovered by I.I. Mechnikov
humoral
Foreign bodies are removed using antibodies - chemical substances delivered by blood. Humoral immunity was discovered by Paul Ehrlich.
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Mechnikov Ilya Ilyich 1845 – 1916
Cellular immunity was discovered by I.I. Mechnikov
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Phagocytes can destroy any antigens, antibodies - only those against which they were developed.
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Message. Opening protective function leukocytes belongs to the remarkable Russian scientist Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov. Here's how it happened. There is a transparent starfish larva on the microscope stage. Small dark lumps are introduced into it - carcass grains. I. I. Mechnikov observes how amoeboid cells capture them. He goes into the garden and plucks thorns from the rose bush. Sticks them into the body of the larva. The next morning he sees many such cells around the thorn. So I. I. Mechnikov discovered the devouring function of cells - phagocytosis. Phagocyte cells are capable of devouring, or better yet, absorbing microbes. I. I. Mechnikov also proved the ability of phagocytes to process useless and harmful substances. He noticed that amoeboid cells can perceive and, if possible, digest substances foreign to the body. As a result of his many years of work, Mechnikov came to the conclusion that phagocytosis is a common phenomenon. It has its own evolution. In lower animals, phagocytes perform a digestive function, in higher animals they perform a protective function. Remember, for example, how the hydra digests food. Based on these studies, I. I. Mechnikov explained the essence of inflammation.
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Types of immunity.
Species Hereditary Acquired
The causative agent of canine distemper does not infect humans. Congenital. Appears after the antigen has been identified and identified, and then neutralized.
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The cause of many diseases is pathogenic bacteria. These diseases are usually contagious and can take over entire countries. Epidemics - outbreaks infectious diseases.
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An excerpt from A. S. Pushkin’s work “A Feast during the Plague”:
Now the church is empty; The school is tightly locked; The cornfield is idly overripe; The dark grove is empty; And the village, like a burnt dwelling, stands - Everything is quiet. (One cemetery) Doesn’t empty, doesn’t remain silent. Every minute they carry the dead, And the groans of the living fearfully ask God to calm their souls! Every minute there is a need for space, And the graves, like a frightened herd, huddle together in a close line.
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Message. The plague has been known since ancient times. In the 6th century, the plague in the Byzantine Empire lasted 50 years and killed 100 million people. The chronicles of the Middle Ages describe terrible pictures of the plague: “Cities and villages were devastated. There was the smell of corpses everywhere, life stood still, only gravediggers could be seen in the squares and streets.” In the 6th century, the plague in Europe killed 1/4 of the population - 10 million people. The plague was called the Black Death. Smallpox was no less dangerous. In the 18th century in Western Europe, 400 thousand people died annually from smallpox. It affected 2/3 of those born and out of 8 people, three died. A special sign of that time was considered to be “No sign of smallpox.” IN early XIX century, with the development of world trade, cholera began to spread. Six cholera epidemics have been recorded. It was brought to Russia with caravans from Iraq and Afghanistan, and later from Western Europe. In Russia before 1917, during the 59 years of cholera, 5.6 million people fell ill and almost half of them died. Six cholera epidemics have been recorded. The last worldwide epidemic lasted from 1902 to 1926. According to the World Health Organization, there was a seventh cholera epidemic in 1961-1962. In 1965-1966, from Asia and the Middle East, the disease approached the southern borders of Europe.
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The involvement of microbes in infectious diseases was proven by the French scientist Louis Pasteur.
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He expressed the idea that if you infect a person with weakened microbes that cause a mild illness, then in the future the person will not get sick with this disease. He will develop immunity. This idea was prompted by the work of the English doctor Edward Jenner.
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What is the merit of E. Jenner.
English country doctor E. Jenner made the world's first vaccination - a smallpox vaccination. To do this, he rubbed liquid from an abscess on a cow's udder into the wound of an eight-year-old boy. A month and a half later, he infected the child with pus smallpox and the boy did not get sick: he developed immunity to smallpox.
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Monument to Edward Jenner.
The sculptor depicted the first smallpox vaccination of a child. This is how the noble feat of a scientist who has won the recognition of all mankind is immortalized.
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A vaccine is a liquid containing a culture of weakened microbes or their poisons. If a person has become infected with any infectious disease, then he is injected with a healing serum. Therapeutic serum is a preparation of antibodies formed in the blood of an animal that was previously specifically infected with this pathogen.
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Heroism of scientists. The successes of science in the fight against infectious diseases are enormous. Many diseases are a thing of the past and are only of historical interest. Scientists who have made their names famous in the fight against microbes have earned the gratitude of all mankind. The names of E. Jenner, L. Pasteur, I. I. Mechnikov, N. F. Gamaleya, E. Roux, R. Koch and many others are written in golden letters in the history of science. Our domestic scientists have written many bright pages in microbiology. There was so much courage and nobility in their service for the benefit of people’s health! Many heroes of science courageously died for the sake of its interests. An example of selfless heroism can be the act of the doctor I. A. Deminsky, who infected himself with the plague in 1927 for scientific purposes. He gave the following telegram: “...infected with pneumonic plague from gophers... Take the harvested crops. Open my corpse as a case of experimental human infection from gophers..."1. Deminsky's discovery, which cost him his life, confirmed his earlier assumption that gophers are carriers of plague in the steppes.
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Thanks to the heroic efforts of Russian doctors in 1910-1911, an outbreak of plague in Harbin was extinguished and its advance to the East and Siberia was stopped. One of the members of this anti-plague expedition, medical student I.V. Mamontov, wrote in the last hour of his life: “Life now is a struggle for the future... We must believe that all this is not in vain and people will achieve it, even through many suffering, real human existence on Earth, so beautiful that for one idea of it you can give everything that is personal, and life itself.”2 Doctor N.K. Zavyalova herself became infected with the pneumonic form of plague in 1951, deciding to test for herself how long immunity lasted after recovery. She sets up a heroic experiment - she again exposes herself to contact with a patient with pneumonic plague. The disease passed in a mild form. So it was found out that immunity exists. Doctor N.I. Latyshev repeatedly infected himself with relapsing fever in order to study the course of the disease. His research was of great scientific importance. He established the latent period of infection, discovered one of the causative agents of the disease, named after him.
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Classification of immunity.
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Immunity classification:
Natural Natural Artificial Artificial
Active Passive Active Passive
Species Hereditary Acquired during the course of a disease. Antibodies are passed through mother's milk. Vaccination is the introduction of weakened antigens that cause the formation of one’s own antibodies. Administration of therapeutic serum containing antibodies produced in the donor’s body.
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Vaccination against rabies.
Rabies is caused by a virus that affects dogs, wolves, foxes and other animals. It is also dangerous for humans. The virus infects cells nervous system. In a sick animal or person, water causes convulsions of the pharynx and larynx. It is impossible to drink, although I am thirsty. From paralysis respiratory muscles or death may occur from cessation of cardiac activity. If you are bitten by a dog, you should immediately consult a doctor. He will carry out a course of vaccinations against rabies, which were proposed by Louis Pasteur. Remember! Immunity against rabies only lasts for a year, and therefore in case of repeated bites it is necessary to vaccinate again if this period has passed.
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Tetanus.
Particular vigilance must be exercised with injuries sustained in rural areas, as you can become infected with tetanus. The causative agents of tetanus develop in the intestines of domestic animals and enter the soil with manure. If the wound is contaminated with soil, anti-tetanus medicinal serum must be administered. Tetanus is a dangerous incurable disease. It begins like a sore throat - a sore throat. Then convulsions occur, which lead to painful death. The introduction of therapeutic serum, which contains ready-made antibodies, destroys tetanus poison.
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AIDS and allergic reactions.
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AIDS and allergic reactions.
Currently, a fairly common incurable disease is AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome). The causative agent of this disease, the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), makes the immune system inoperative, and people die from those microbes, bacteria, fungi that are absolutely safe for a healthy person, that is, with a healthy immune system. Prevention of AIDS is compliance with the following rules: - exclusion of casual sexual relations; - use of disposable syringes for injections. Another ailment of the century is allergic reactions to various factors external environment, i.e. allergy is an increased reaction of the body to certain environmental factors. In this case, a person experiences: - sneezing; - lacrimation; - swelling. In case of predisposition to allergic reactions For the purposes of prevention, the following rules should be observed: - diet; - timely examination and treatment of the disease; - refusal of self-medication.
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Consolidation
Solution to the “Immunity” puzzle (fig) 1. Substances that can cause an immune response in the body. 2. The scientist who discovered cellular immunity. 3. Immunity, in which foreign bodies are removed by chemicals delivered by the blood. 4. Immunity acquired after vaccination or after administration of medicinal serum. 5. Protective proteins of the body that neutralize antigens. 6. A preparation made from killed or weakened microorganisms or their waste products. 7. Immunity is congenital or acquired as a result of a previous disease. 8. The scientist who created the rabies vaccine. 9. A preparation of ready-made antibodies, obtained from the blood of a recovered person or animal specifically infected with one or another pathogen.
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Immunity, immunity - the body's ability to resist infection resulting from the presence of an infection that occurs when antibodies and white blood cells are present in the blood.
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Immunity is distinguished: innate acquired natural artificial active - post-infectious (after suffering infectious diseases) passive - immunity of newborns, fades away by 6-8 months active - created by (administration of vaccines, serums, example: BCG, measles, hepatitis...) passive - by administration of ready-made antibodies (flu)
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The immune system- a system that unites organs and tissues that provide protection for the body from genetically foreign bodies or substances coming from outside or formed in the body. The organs of the immune system include a complex of interconnected organs. They are: central - these include the red bone marrow and the thymus gland; peripheral - these include the lymph nodes, lymphoid tissue of the walls of the respiratory and digestive systems (tonsils, single and group lymphoid nodules of the ileum, group lymphoid nodules vermiform appendix), spleen.
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Bone marrow, medulla ossium Red bone marrow consists of myeloid tissue containing, in particular, hematopoietic stem cells, which are the precursors of all shaped elements blood. In newborns, the bone marrow, which fills all the bone marrow cells, is red. From 4-5 years in the diaphysis tubular bones The red bone marrow is replaced by fatty tissue and turns yellow. In adults, red bone marrow remains in the epiphyses of long bones, short and flat bones and has a mass of about 1.5 kg. With the bloodstream, stem cells enter other organs of the immune system, where they undergo further differentiation
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Lymphocytes B-lymphocytes (15% of the total number) T-lymphocytes (85% of the total number) partly turn into immunological memory cells and spread throughout the body, have long term existence and capable of reproduction. part, remaining in the lymphoid organs, turns into plasma cells. They produce and release humoral antibodies into the plasma. Consequently, the ability of the B-cell system to “memorize” is due to an increase in the number of antigen-specific memory cells; one part of the resulting daughter cells binds to the antigen and destroys it. Binding in the antigen-antibody complex occurs due to the presence of an integrated receptor protein on the T-lymphocyte membrane. This reaction occurs with the participation of special T helper cells. the other part of the daughter lymphocytes forms a group of immunological memory T cells. These lymphocytes are long-lived and, having “remembered” the antigen from the first meeting, “recognize” it upon repeated contact.
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Classification of antibodies (5 classes) Immunoglobulins M, G, A, E, D (IgA, IgG, IgM, IgE, IgD) Class M immunoglobulins are the first to be formed in response to an antigen - these are macroglobulins - large-molecular. They function in small quantities in the fetus. After birth, the synthesis of immunoglobulins G and A begins. They are more effective in the fight against bacteria and their toxins. Immunoglobulins A are found in large quantities in the intestinal mucosa, saliva and other fluids. In the second year of life, immunoglobulin D and E appear and reach their maximum levels by 10-15 years. The same sequence of production of different classes of antibodies is observed during human infection or immunization.
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The immune system consists of 3 components: A-system: Phagocytes capable of adhering to foreign proteins (monocytes); are formed in the bone marrow and are present in the blood and tissues. They absorb foreign agents - antigen, accumulate it and transmit a signal (antigenic stimulus) to the executive cells of the immune system.
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B-system B-lymphocytes, found in lymph nodes, Peyer's patches, peripheral blood. They receive a signal from the A-system and turn into plasma cells capable of synthesizing antibodies (immunoglobulins). This system provides humoral immunity, freeing the body from molecularly dispersed substances (bacteria, viruses, their toxins, etc.)
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T - thymic lymphocyte system; their maturation depends on thymus gland. T-lymphocytes are present in the thymus, lymph nodes, spleen, and a little in the peripheral blood. After a stimulating signal, lymphoblasts mature (reproduction or proliferation) and become mature, acquiring the ability to recognize a foreign agent and interact with it. The T-system, along with macrophages, ensures the formation cellular immunity, as well as transplant rejection reactions (transplantation immunity); provides antitumor resistance (prevents the occurrence of tumors in the body).
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Thymus gland, thymus. Topography. located in the upper part of the mediastinum, in front of the pericardium, aortic arch, brachiocephalic and superior vena cava. Areas adjacent to the gland on the sides lung tissue, the anterior surface is in contact with the manubrium and the body of the sternum.
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Structure of the thymus. Consists of two lobes - right and left. The lobes are covered with a connective tissue capsule that extends deeper into branches, dividing the glands into small lobules. Each lobule consists of a cortical (darker) and medulla (lighter) substance. Thymus cells are represented by lymphocytes - thymocytes. The elementary structural histological unit of the thymus is the Clark follicle, which is located in the cortex and includes epithelial cells (E), lymphocytes (L) and macrophages (M).
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Lymphoid tissue of the walls of the digestive and respiratory systems. 1. Tonsils, tonsillae, are accumulations of lymphoid tissue, in which, against the background of diffusely located elements, there are dense accumulations of cells in the form of nodules (follicles). The tonsils are localized in the initial sections of the respiratory and digestive tubes (palatine tonsils, lingual and pharyngeal) and in the area of the mouth auditory tube(tubal tonsils). The tonsil complex forms a lymphoid ring or Pirogov-Valdeira ring. A. lingual tonsil, tonsilla lingualis (4) – located at the root of the tongue, under the epithelium of the mucous membrane. B. paired palatine tonsil, tonsilla palatine (3) - located in the recess between the palatine and velopharyngeal folds of the oral cavity - in the tonsillar fossa. B. paired tubal tonsil, tonsilla tubaria (2) – lies in the mucous membrane of the nasal part of the pharynx, behind the mouth of the pharyngeal opening of the auditory tube. G. pharyngeal (adenoid) tonsil, tonsilla pharyngealis (1) – located in the upper part back wall pharynx and in the area of the pharyngeal vault.
