Food masses from the oral cavity through the pharynx enter the pharynx during swallowing and then into the esophagus.
Air from the nasal cavity passes through the choanae into the pharynx and then into the larynx. So in the throat
The respiratory and digestive tracts intersect.
The basis of the pharyngeal wall is the fibrous membrane, which is the soft skeleton of the pharynx and
attaches to the pharyngeal tubercle of the occipital bone at the base of the skull and the medial plate
pterygoid process sphenoid bone. The inside of the fibrous membrane is lined with mucous membrane. Outside of her
are the muscles of the pharynx.
The pharyngeal cavity has the following parts: the nasal part, the oral part and the laryngeal part.
The pharynx consists of:
from the bow, which includes:
§ bones of the base of the skull;
§ vault of the pharynx;
§ pharyngeal (adenoid) tonsil, which is well expressed in children; in adults it is
insignificant;
§ choanae, through which the pharyngeal cavity communicates with the nasal cavity;
§ pharyngeal opening auditory tube, through which the pharynx communicates with tympanic cavity;
located on the lateral wall of the pharynx;
§ pipe roller;
§ tubal tonsil (steam room);
from the oral part, which includes:
§ pharynx connecting the pharynx with the oral cavity;
§ palatoglossal arch, limiting the pharynx on the sides;
§ velopharyngeal arch, limiting the pharynx on the sides;
§ palatine tonsil (steam room);
§ lingual tonsil;
from the laryngeal part, which includes:
§ the entrance to the larynx, through which the pharynx communicates with the larynx;
§ larynx;
§ esophagus.
The pharynx starts from the base of the skull and reaches the level of the VI cervical vertebra.
Esophagus
From the pharynx, food enters the stomach through the esophagus. The length of the esophagus is 25–30 cm, its lumen is compressed into
anteroposterior direction.
The wall of the esophagus is made up of 3 membranes:
· mucous membrane - internal. It has longitudinal folds, which facilitates the movement of food through the esophagus;
· muscular - average. Consists of two layers: outer (longitudinal) and inner (circular). IN
in the upper third of the esophagus the muscular layer is represented by skeletal muscles, in the middle third
smooth muscles appear, in the lower third - only smooth muscles;
· connective tissue membrane - outer. The abdominal part of the esophagus is covered externally with serous
membrane, which is the visceral layer of the peritoneum.
Narrowing of the esophagus
The esophagus has three parts: cervical, thoracic and abdominal.
In certain places where the esophagus comes into contact with other organs, narrowings form.
Anatomical narrowings exist both in a living person and on a corpse, physiological ones are determined
only in a living person.
· I - pharyngeal narrowing in the area of the transition of the pharynx to the esophagus at the level of VI – VII cervical vertebrae
(anatomical narrowing);
II - aortic narrowing in the area where the esophagus is adjacent to the aortic arch at the level of the IV thoracic vertebra
(physiological narrowing);
III - bronchial narrowing in the area of contact of the esophagus with the posterior surface of the left bronchus
at the level of IV – V thoracic vertebrae (anatomical narrowing);
IV - diaphragmatic narrowing at the point where the esophagus passes through the diaphragm (anatomical
narrowing);
V - cardiac narrowing during the transition of the esophagus to the cardiac part of the stomach (physiological
narrowing).
The esophagus is located from the level of the VI – VII cervical vertebrae to the X – XI thoracic vertebrae.
Stomach
Mechanical and chemical processing of food continues in the stomach.
The composition of the stomach includes:
· front wall;
· back wall;
· greater curvature of the stomach;
· lesser curvature of the stomach;
· cardiac part;
· fundus (vault) of the stomach;
· body of the stomach;
· pyloric (pyloric) part.
The stomach wall has the following membranes:
external - serous, which is the visceral layer of peritoneum covering the stomach
intraperitoneal;
· middle - muscular;
· internal - mucous membrane.
The wall of the stomach has a pronounced submucosa and a muscular plate of the mucous membrane.
Due to this, the mucous membrane forms the folds of the stomach.
The shape of the stomach in a living person depends on the constitution of the person, functional state nervous
systems, body position in space, degree of filling. In this regard, with X-ray
research there is a certain terminology.
Small intestine
From the stomach, food enters the small intestine, where further mechanical, chemical
food processing and absorption process. The length of the small intestine in a corpse is about 7 m, in a living person - from 2 to 4 m.
The small intestine is divided according to function and structure into three sections: duodenum, jejunum
intestine and ileum.
The mucous membrane has a velvety appearance due to the presence of villi.
Each section of the intestine has its own structural features and functions.
Duodenum
The duodenum is the initial section of the small intestine. The intestines open into the lumen
flows of large digestive glands (liver and pancreas). Food in the duodenum
is broken down by the digestive juice of the duodenum, bile and pancreatic juice
glands.
In the duodenum there are:
· upper part;
superior flexure of the duodenum;
· descending part. On the left surface, the mucous membrane forms a longitudinal fold, where it opens
ducts of the liver and pancreas;
common gastric duct, which carries the liver and gallbladder to the duodenum
bile flows;
· pancreatic duct through which pancreatic juice flows;
Hepatopancreatic ampulla, where the common bile duct and the bile duct merge
pancreas;
· major papilla duodenum, where the hepatopancreatic ampulla opens
in the area of the longitudinal fold;
accessory duct of the pancreas;
The minor pancreatic papilla, where the accessory pancreatic duct opens
glands;
· lower duodenal flexure;
· ascending part;
· duodenum-jejunal flexure.
Jejunum and ileum
The jejunum is a continuation of the duodenum. Her loops lie at the top left
abdominal cavity in the left mesenteric sinus. There are fewer circular folds in the mucosa of the small intestine than in
duodenum. There are a large number of solitary follicles.
The ileum is a continuation of the jejunum and the final section of the entire small intestine.
Located in the right mesenteric sinus. In the mucous membrane of the ileum, circular folds become
less than in the jejunum. They are not found in the final section. Many group follicles,
located on the free edge of the intestine.
Colon
The large intestine is the final section digestive system. Processes end there
digestion, feces are formed and excreted.
The structure of the wall of the large intestine is similar to the structure of the small intestine, but it has its own characteristics.
In the colon, longitudinal muscle fibers are concentrated into three bands:
· into the mesenteric band, to which the intestinal mesentery is attached;
· into the omental band - the place of attachment of the greater omentum;
· into a free tape located on the free front surface.
Since the length of the tapes is less than the length of the intestine, protrusions of the colon wall are formed between the tapes.
intestines.
Sections of the colon:
· cecum, covered with peritoneum on all sides and without a mesentery;
· vermiform appendix - outgrowth of the cecum; covered with peritoneum on all sides and has a mesentery;
· ascending colon, covered with peritoneum on three sides;
right flexure of the colon;
· transverse colon, covered with peritoneum on all sides and having a mesentery;
· left flexure of the colon;
· descending colon, covered with peritoneum on three sides;
· sigmoid colon, covered with peritoneum on all sides and having a mesentery;
· rectum.
In the large intestine, the circular layer of the muscular layer is strengthened in places (between the haustra and especially on
borders various departments colon, where physiological pulps are formed, determined only in
living person during intestinal activity). At x-ray examination colon
strengthening of the circular layer of the muscular layer at the border of different parts of the intestine gives a picture
physiological narrowings that are noticeable only during contraction of the muscle membrane (physiological
sphincters).
The cecum and appendix are the initial sections of the large intestine. Located on the right
iliac fossa. All muscle lines converge on the posterior inferior surface of the cecum. In this place
the vermiform appendix comes off.
Since the cecum is located in the subhepatic region, options for its location are possible
in the right hypochondrium under the liver; in the right iliac fossa (the most common position); at
entrance to the pelvis.
The ascending colon is a continuation of the cecum. Located in the right side
abdominal area. The posterior surface of the ascending colon is adjacent to the posterior abdominal wall and is not covered
peritoneum.
The transverse colon is located transversely in the abdominal cavity in the form of an arc, with a convexity
directed downwards. It is covered on all sides by peritoneum, which is attached to the posterior abdominal wall.
The position of the transverse colon often varies.
The descending colon is located in the left lateral region of the abdomen. Its back surface is not
covered with peritoneum.
The sigmoid colon is located in the left iliac fossa, at the level of the sacroiliac joint
passes into the rectum. It is covered on all sides by peritoneum and has a mesentery, which is attached to
posterior abdominal wall. This contributes to greater mobility of the sigmoid colon.
The rectum is the final section of the large intestine, located in the pelvic cavity. Its function is
accumulation and excretion of feces.
Liver
Directly connected to the digestive tube are the large digestive glands (liver,
pancreas), the ducts of which open into the duodenum.
The liver is the largest digestive gland. Main functions of the liver:
hematopoietic function - in the embryonic period, the formation of red blood cells occurs in it
(erythropoiesis);
· production of blood clotting factors;
· formation of bile - in the postembryonic period, bile bile are formed from destroyed hemoglobin
pigments that are bile;
· protective function - liver cells are capable of phagocytosis, therefore the liver is classified as an organ
reticuloendothelial system;
· barrier function - neutralization of metabolic products;
· hormonal function.
There are right and left lobes of the liver.
The liver lobes are divided into segments. An organ segment is an independent unit,
which can be distinguished surgically. A liver segment is an area that has a separate
blood supply, lymph formation, bile outflow and innervation.
The segments consist of lobules, which are the structural and functional units of the liver. Borders
between the lobules of the liver form bile ducts, blood and lymphatic vessels.
Upper limit the right lobe of the liver corresponds to the fourth intercostal space.
The upper border of the left lobe of the liver is located to the left of the sternum at the level of the V intercostal space.
The lower edge of the liver is located on the right at the level of the X intercostal space. Next goes on the right
costal arch. Comes out from under the arc and goes left and up. Crosses the white line midway
between the xiphoid process and the navel. At the level of the left costal cartilage, it crosses the costal arch to
to the left of the sternum to meet the upper lobe of the liver.
The diaphragmatic surface of the liver is adjacent to the diaphragm. To the visceral surface of the liver
adjacent various organs.
Gallbladder
The gallbladder is a reservoir for bile, located on the visceral surface of the liver in
gallbladder fossa.
There are:
bottom of the gallbladder. It can be palpated on the anterior abdominal wall at the level of the junction
cartilage of the XIII and IX ribs;
body of the gallbladder;
neck of the gallbladder;
· cystic duct;
right hepatic duct;
· left hepatic duct;
· the common hepatic duct, which merges with the cystic duct and forms the common duct;
· general bile duct, heading towards the medial wall of the descending part of the duodenum
intestines.
Pancreas
The pancreas is a digestive gland that produces pancreatic juice and
an endocrine gland that produces the hormone insulin, which is involved in carbohydrate metabolism.
The structure of the pancreas is a complex alveolar-tubular gland with a lobular
structure. It is located behind the peritoneum (the anterior and partially lower surfaces are covered with the peritoneum
pancreas).
The head of the pancreas is adjacent to the concave side of the duodenum. Ahead
The transverse colon is located, and behind is the inferior vena cava and the aorta. The tail is close to the gate
spleen, behind the tail are the left adrenal gland and the upper end of the left kidney.
Development of the digestive system
The mucous membrane of the organs of the digestive system develops from the endoderm, the muscular layer -
from mesenchyme, peritoneum and its derivatives - from ventral mesoderm.
Endoderm - the primary gut, the inner germ layer. The mucous membrane develops from it
organs of the digestive and respiratory systems, with the exception of the anterior oral cavity and anal
holes.
Respiratory system
The main functions of the respiratory system are air conduction, voice production,
gas exchange (carbon dioxide is released and oxygen is absorbed).
In the respiratory system there are:
· nose area;
· nasal part of the pharynx;
· oral part of the pharynx;
· larynx;
· trachea;
· lungs.
The basis of the wall of the respiratory tract is made up of the bony skeleton (nasal cavity), fibrous skeleton (pharynx),
cartilaginous skeleton (larynx, trachea, bronchi). Thanks to this, the lumen of the airways does not collapse.
Nose area
The nose area performs the function of conducting air, smelling, and is a resonator. Distinguish
external nose and nasal cavity.
The external nose is formed by the following bones and cartilage:
· nasal bone;
frontal process upper jaw;
· upper jaw;
· lateral cartilage of the nose;
· lesser wing cartilage;
· large wing cartilage;
The nasal cavity is divided by the nasal septum into two halves:
· perpendicular plate, ethmoid bone;
· opener;
· cartilage of the nasal septum;
· large cartilage of the wing.
The nasal cavity is divided by the nasal concha into the nasal passages: upper, middle and lower. They also highlight
common nasal passage.
The superior nasal meatus is limited superiorly and medially by the superior nasal concha, inferiorly by the middle nasal concha
sink. The superior nasal passage communicates with the pterygoid sinus, the posterior cells of the ethmoidal labyrinth
bones, sphenopalatine foramen.
The middle meatus is limited superiorly by the middle turbinate. The middle nasal meatus communicates with
frontal sinus, maxillary sinus, middle and anterior cells of the ethmoid labyrinth.
The inferior nasal meatus is limited superiorly by the inferior nasal concha and inferiorly by the nasal surfaces
the palatine process of the maxilla and the horizontal plate of the palatine bone. In the lower nasal passage
The nasolacrimal duct opens.
Olfactory region of the nasal cavity
The nasal cavity is functionally divided into the respiratory region and the olfactory region. TO
The olfactory region includes that part of the mucous membrane that covers the upper and part of the middle
turbinates, as well as the corresponding upper part of the nasal septum. In these areas in the mucosa
the membrane contains the endings of the olfactory nerve, which are the peripheral part of the olfactory
analyzer.
The mucous membrane covering the nasal cavity continues into the mucous membrane of the paranasal sinuses. Their
function is similar to that of the nasal cavity: warming, humidifying and purifying the air, they are
resonators. The paranasal sinuses reduce the weight of the skull and make its structure more durable.
Larynx
From the nasal cavity through the choanae, air enters the nasal part of the pharynx, then into the oral part of the pharynx,
then into the larynx.
The larynx is involved in conducting air and in the process of voice formation. At the top of the larynx using
ligaments suspended from the hyoid bone, below connected to the trachea.
The laryngeal cavity has three sections:
· the vestibule of the larynx, which extends from the entrance to the larynx to the folds of the vestibule;
middle section, which contains:
§ folds of the vestibule, between them there is a fissure of the vestibule;
§ fissure of the vestibule;
§ ventricle of the larynx (paired);
§ vocal folds, between which the glottis is located;
· subglottic cavity, located from the vocal folds at the top to the transition to the trachea at the bottom.
The skeleton of the larynx is formed by cartilage:
· epiglottic cartilage;
· thyroid cartilage (in the anterior region of the neck, the cartilage forms a protrusion, most pronounced in men);
· corniculate cartilage;
· arytenoid cartilage;
· cricoid cartilage.
The cartilages of the larynx are connected to each other using joints and ligaments.
The laryngeal muscles are striated in structure. They can be divided into muscles that affect the lumen
entrance to the larynx (narrowing and expanding); to the clearance of the glottis (narrowing and expanding
glottis); on the degree of tension of the vocal cord (straining and relaxing the vocal cord).
Laryngeal cavity
The submucosal layer of the larynx contains a large number of fibrous and elastic fibers,
forming a fibro-elastic membrane. In the area of the vestibule of the larynx it is represented
quadrangular membrane. The quadrangular membrane forms below the right and left folds of the vestibule.
In the subglottic cavity, the fibroelastic membrane is represented by an elastic cone. Elastic
the cone at the top forms the vocal cords.
The larynx is located in the anterior region of the neck at the level of the IV to VI – VII cervical vertebrae.
In front, the larynx is covered by a deep layer of the cervical fascia and the hyoid muscles.
In front and on the sides, the larynx is covered by the right and left lobes of the thyroid gland. Behind the larynx
The laryngeal part of the pharynx is located.
Trachea and main bronchi
The next section of the respiratory system after the larynx is the trachea, which is then divided into
main bronchi. Their function is to conduct air into the lungs.
The respiratory system can be considered one of the main systems of human life. A person can do without food and even water for a certain time. But he can’t help but breathe. If a person begins to experience problems with air supply, then his organs, for example, the respiratory organs and the heart, begin to work in increased mode. This occurs so that the required amount of oxygen for breathing can be provided. We can say that in this way the human respiratory system adapts to environmental conditions.
While at rest, an adult takes on average approximately 15-17 inhalations and exhalations per minute. A person breathes throughout his life: from the moment of birth to death. When inhaled, the human body enters atmospheric air. When you exhale, on the contrary, waste air saturated with carbon dioxide is removed from the body. There are two types of breathing (according to the method of chest expansion):
- chest type of breathing (the chest expands by raising the ribs), more often observed in women;
- abdominal type of breathing (expansion of the chest is produced by changing the diaphragm, more often observed in men.
The process of breathing has for a person great importance, which means it must be correct. This is important for the normal functioning of all human systems. It is generally accepted that the human respiratory system consists of the trachea, lungs, bronchi, lymphatic and vascular systems. There are upper and lower respiratory tracts. They are designed to move air in and out of the lungs. The symbolic transition of the upper respiratory tract to the lower one occurs at the intersection of the digestive and respiratory systems in the upper part of the larynx.
The upper respiratory tract system consists of the nasal cavity, nasopharynx and oropharynx, and also partially oral cavity, since it can also be used for breathing. The lower respiratory tract system consists of the larynx (sometimes referred to as the upper respiratory tract) and trachea.
Inhalation and exhalation is carried out by changing the size of the chest using respiratory muscles. At rest, about 400-500 ml of air enters the human lungs during one breath. The maximum deep breath is approximately 2 thousand ml of air.
The lungs are nominally considered the most important organ of the respiratory system.
Lungs located in the chest area and have a shape similar to a cone. The main function of the lungs is gas exchange, which occurs with the help of the alveoli. Covering the lungs is the pleura, consisting of two lobes separated by a cavity (pleural cavity). The lungs include the bronchial tree, which is formed by bifurcation trachea. The bronchi, in turn, are divided into thinner ones, thus forming segmental bronchi. Bronchial tree ends in very small bags. These sacs are many interconnected alveoli. Alveoli provide gas exchange in respiratory system. The bronchi are covered by epithelium, which in its structure resembles cilia.
Trachea is a tube about 12-15 cm long that connects the larynx and bronchi. The trachea, unlike the lungs, is an unpaired organ. The main function of the trachea is to conduct and remove air from the lungs. The trachea is located between the sixth vertebra of the neck and the fifth vertebra thoracic. In the lower part, the trachea bifurcates and approaches two bronchi. The bifurcation of the trachea is called bifurcation. At the beginning of the trachea it is adjacent to thyroid. At the back of the trachea is the esophagus. The trachea is covered by a mucous membrane, which is the basis, and it is also covered by muscle-cartilaginous tissue with a fibrous structure. The trachea consists of approximately 18-20 rings of cartilage tissue, due to which the trachea has flexibility.
Larynx- the respiratory organ where the vocal apparatus is located. It connects the trachea and pharynx. The larynx is located in the area of 4-6 vertebrae of the neck and is attached to the hyoid bone with the help of ligaments.
Pharynx is a tube that originates in the nasal cavity. The digestive and respiratory tracts intersect in the pharynx. The pharynx can be called the link between the nasal cavity and the oral cavity, and the pharynx also connects the larynx and esophagus.
Nasal cavity is the initial section of the respiratory system. Consists of the external nose and nasal passages. The function of the nasal cavity is to filter the air, as well as cleanse and humidify it.
Oral cavity- This is the second way air enters the human respiratory system.
One of the main reasons why a person can develop respiratory diseases is viruses, bacteria and other pathogens. The causative agents of the disease are usually pneumococci, mycoplasmas, Haemophilus influenzae, legionella, chlamydia, mycobacterium tuberculosis, respiratory viral infections, influenza viruses type A and B.
Other factors that can cause respiratory diseases include external allergens (for example, dust, pollen, pet dander), as well as house mites. The latter often cause bronchial asthma in humans.
The human respiratory system and many industrial factors have a negative impact. For example, if the production process uses heat treatment processes or chemical compounds. In addition, respiratory diseases can also be caused by some medical supplies, as well as food allergens.
Undoubtedly, Negative influence Unfavorable ecology also affects the human respiratory system. Polluted air that contains high levels of chemical compounds, smoke or gas contamination of premises - all this can cause the development of serious diseases.
Symptoms of respiratory diseases:
- Chest pain
- Lung pain
- Dry cough
- Suffocation
- Cough
- Wheezing in the bronchi
- Dyspnea
- Moist cough
In acute bronchitis, which usually follows respiratory infection, for example, a severe cold or flu, the patient develops a painful, dry cough because the bronchi affected by the infection become inflamed. This leads to the formation of a large amount of sputum. Bronchitis can recur, then they talk about chronic bronchitis.
Irritation of the mucous membrane of the nose and throat causes increased mucus production. When it becomes excessive or prolonged, such as after a cold, it results in a runny nose. If this process affects the lower respiratory tract, bronchial catarrh develops.
Asthma is not one of those diseases that can be easily and simply dealt with at home. Asthma requires professional treatment and observation by a doctor. In children, asthma is most often associated with allergic reactions; Often it can be caused by hereditary hay fever or eczema. When trying to identify the allergens that cause illness, it makes sense to look at environmental factors and internal factors, for example diet, and then move on to conventional skin testing.
Laryngitis
At laryngitis inflammation affects the mucous membrane of the larynx and vocal cords. Doctors divide laryngitis into chronic catarrhal And chronic hypertrophic. Depending on intensity and prevalence pathological process a certain clinical picture appears. Patients complain of hoarseness, soreness and dryness in the throat, constant feeling a foreign body in the throat, a cough in which sputum is difficult to separate.
This acute illness infectious nature, at which it develops inflammatory process palatine tonsils and lymph nodes. The pathogen multiplies in the tonsils, after which it sometimes spreads to other organs, causing complications of the disease. The disease begins with a general feeling of weakness, chills, and headache. Then a sore throat appears, and ulcers may form in the tonsils. Typically, a sore throat is accompanied by a rise in body temperature to 39C.
Pneumonia
In pneumonia, inflammation of the lungs occurs under the influence of infection. The alveoli, which are responsible for oxygen saturation of the blood, are affected. The disease causes enough wide range pathogens. Pneumonia often manifests itself as a complication of other respiratory diseases. Most often, the disease occurs in children, the elderly, and people with weakened body defenses. The pathogens end up in the lungs, entering through the respiratory tract. If the disease is not treated in a timely manner, death is likely.
Considering the fact that respiratory diseases are one of the most common diseases in both children and adults, their treatment and prevention should be as clear and timely as possible. If respiratory diseases are not diagnosed in time, then it will take much longer to treat the consequences of human respiratory diseases. Any drug treatment should be prescribed only by a doctor after conducting the necessary comprehensive examination.
In the process of treating diseases it is used various methods: physiotherapy, inhalations, manual therapy, exercise therapy, reflexology, chest massage, breathing exercises and etc.
To prevent respiratory diseases, it is recommended to rest 1-2 times a year on specialized kurtas. Such resorts in the Czech Republic include Luhacovice and Marianske Lazne. After consultation with your doctor, you will be offered the optimal course spa treatment, which will breathe new strength into your body.
