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Education new states And revolutionary events
1918 – started 1920- X years
At the final stage of the First World War, multinational empires collapsed - Russian, Austro – Hungarian, Ottoman. As a result, a group of new sovereign states appeared on the map of Europe. One of the first - on December 6, 1917 - declared its independence Finland, that same month the Soviet government recognized this status.
The next year, without exaggeration, could be called the year of independence.
1918 year
Declaration of Independence Lithuania |
|
Declaration of Independence Estonia |
|
Termination Hungary union with Austria |
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Proclamation Czechoslovakian Republic |
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Restoration of an independent Polish state – Speeches Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth |
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Declaration of Independence Latvia |
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Education Kingdoms Serbs, Croats And Slovenians (since 1929 - Kingdom Yugoslavia) |
The events of 1917 in Russia were followed by revolutions in Germany and Austria-Hungary.
9 November 1918 of the year V Germany the abdication of the Kaiser, the appointment of a regent and elections to the National Constituent Assembly were announced. Germany was proclaimed a republic. In the summer of 1919 in the city of Weimar, the National Constituent Assembly adopted a constitution according to which
- universal suffrage and “representation of the people” were introduced; the powers of the president were expanded; The powers of the Reichstag (parliament) were limited.
IN October 1918 of the year republic became And Hungary. In March 1919, as a result of the overthrow of the bourgeois-democratic government, Hungary was proclaimed a Soviet Republic. Were created
banks were nationalized industrial enterprises and transport;
· landowners' lands were confiscated;
Hitler emphasized that “the poverty of the Germans must be eliminated with German weapons.
This time must come." He demanded the return of the colonies lost
Germany under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles 1919, calling this treaty
"barbaric". During this and subsequent speeches, Hitler did not
limited himself to demanding the return of pre-war territories, but insisted on
subsidized the election campaigns of the NSDAP and associated with Hitler and his
party personal and national aspirations, seeing in the Nazi
movement is primarily a reliable barrier against communism.
The NSDAP appeal dated March 1, 1932 said: “Hitler is the motto for
everyone who believes in the revival of Germany... Hitler will win, because the people want
230 mandates (social democrats - 133, communists - 89 mandates), becoming the most
a major faction in parliament.
The NSDAP numbered about 850 thousand people. These were mainly people from
bourgeois environment. Workers made up one third of the total, about
half of them are unemployed. Over the next five months, the number
batches tripled and reached 2.5 million. The apparatus expanded
NSDAP. In the fall of 1938, there were 41 Gauleiter, 808 Kreisleiter,
28,376 Ortsgruppenleiter, 89,378 Zellenleiter and 463,048 Blockleiter.
In total, the party apparatus by this time amounted to over 580 thousand staff
managers at all levels. From this moment Nazification began
Third Reich. It was carried out in two ways: members of the NSDAP were appointed to
leadership positions in administration at various levels, in the police, in the army or
The NSDAP took over the functions government agencies or installed over
their control and supervision. The formal basis for this was the adopted 1
December 1933 "Law on ensuring the unity of the party and the state."
In addition, direct political control was exercised within the
party and in organizations controlled by it (for example, Hitler Youth, SA, SS,
Association of students, etc.). The principle that excluded collegiality
Fuhrership" was manifested in the fact that from 1921 until the last days
existence of the NSDAP, no leadership meetings were held even in a narrow
circle. Only meetings of the Reichsleiter and
Gauleiters, at which Hitler conveyed decisions to them for execution.
The position of the Gauleiters depended directly on the confidence of the Fuehrer, for
only he had the right to appoint and remove them (from 1933 to 1945 they were removed from
only 6 Gauleiters held their posts, according to various reasons fallen out of favor
Fuhrer). “The will of the Fuhrer for the party is the highest law,” stated the
official publication of the NSDAP (1940).
Based on the Emergency Powers Act, it was prohibited
the activities of trade unions (instead of them the German Labor Front was created),
many trade union activists were arrested, newspapers and magazines were closed
democratic orientation, the activities of most political
parties, including SPD, KPD, German Center Party, Catholic
People's Party, German National People's Party, etc. The NSDAP became
the only political force in Germany, which was reflected in the statement
government dated 01/01/01, which stated that attempts to preserve
former political parties or the creation of new ones will be punishable by prison
imprisonment or confinement in forced labor camps.
The events of the "Night of the Long Knives", when many were physically eliminated
leaders and ordinary members of the SA, demanding the previously promised second stage
social changes, "continuation of the revolution", ended the struggle within the NSDAP
and became a factor making it easier for Hitler to implement his far-reaching
expansionist plans. The economy of the Reich began to be transferred to the military
In order to promote Nazi ideas among the population and demonstrate
national unity, the NSDAP constantly organized magnificent and
The Nuremberg party congresses, held in 1933-38 in the first
ten days of September in Nuremberg, which did not have any influence on the general
the party line, but were only a spectacular propaganda event.
Exercise 1
The alignment of political forces in Germany and the rise of the Nazis to power.
Reichstag election results for major political parties (% of total votes cast)
Parties | 05.1928 | 09.1930 | 07.1932 | |
SPD (Social Democratic Party of Germany) | ||||
NNPP (German National People's Party) | ||||
KPD (Communist Party of Germany) | ||||
NSDAP (National Socialist Workers' Party of Germany) |
What does the information in the table provide to explain the reasons for the transfer of power in Germany to the Nazis in January 1933?
Task 2
Employed and unemployed in Germany (million people)
unemployed | unemployed |
||||
October 1933 | |||||
** in January 1933. The number of unemployed was 6 million 13 thousand people
Explain why the indicators in the table have changed? What features of the development of Germany in the 1930s contributed to this?
3. Revolutionary movement in 1919-1920
Both internal and foreign policy The Dashnak government caused sharp discontent among broad sections of the Armenian people. The revolutionary struggle of the working people for Soviet power intensified. In the spring and especially summer of 1919, the peasant movement in Armenia experienced a noticeable upsurge, indicating dissatisfaction of the broad peasant masses with the government's agrarian policy. In many villages of Armenia, peasants began to take decisive action, refused to pay taxes, and took away land from large landowners. Peasants' uprisings against the authorities and landowners took place in a number of villages in Zangezur, Dilijan, Alexandropol, Karklis and other districts. The labor movement also revived. There were strikes by printers in Yerevan, railway workers in Alexandropol, and employees went on strike government agencies. The Bolshevik organizations of Armenia intensified their activities among the masses. In September 1919, the first meeting of the communist organizations of Armenia took place in Yerevan, which became an important milestone towards the unification of the country's communist organizations. At the meeting, the governing body of the Bolshevik organizations in Armenia was elected - the Armenian Committee of the RCP (Armenkom). Work to unite the Bolshevik organizations of Armenia was continued at the first conference of communist organizations of Armenia, which took place in January 1920 in Yerevan. Having considered the issue of the political situation in the country, the conference recognized the priority task of the Bolshevik organizations to expand the revolutionary struggle, overthrow the Dashnak government and establish Soviet power in Armenia. The conference completed the unification of the disparate communist organizations of Armenia around a single leadership center and thereby created important prerequisites for completing organizational formalization Communist Party Armenia. The Armenian Committee of the RCP (b) elected by the conference included S. Kasyan, A. Mravyan, S. Alaverdyash and others. Seeing the growing activity of Bolshevik organizations, the government resorted to drastic measures to suppress the revolutionary movement. In February 1920, repressions against Bolshevik organizations intensified, and a number of their leaders were expelled from the country. The government sought to outlaw the Communist Party of Armenia. But these measures were unable to prevent the brewing of a revolutionary crisis in the country. Young people took an active part in the revolutionary movement in Armenia. Young workers and students, imbued with communist ideas, fought against the ruling system and social injustice. In the spring of 1919, the organization of young communists of Yerevan - “Spartak” was created, which established close ties with the revolutionary youth organizations of Tbilisi and Baku. The leadership core of the Spartak organization included Gukas Ghukasyav and Agasi Khanjyan. “Spartak” is the first Komsomol organization in Armenia. The strengthening of the revolutionary movement in Armenia was largely due to a change in the general situation in Russia and Transcaucasia in favor of the revolution. By the beginning of 1920, Soviet Russia had defeated the main forces of internal counter-revolution and foreign interventionists, and was confidently moving toward a victorious conclusion to the civil war. In April of the same year, the working people of Azerbaijan, with the help of units of the Red Army of Soviet Russia, overthrew the Musavatist government and established Soviet power. These events stimulated the rise of the revolutionary movement in Armenia. The revolutionary crisis reached its climax in May 1920. The May Day demonstrations and rallies held in Yerevan, Alexandropol, Karei, Sarikamysh, Karaklis and other cities were held under anti-government slogans and showed the determination of the masses to fight for the victory of Soviet power. The performances in Alexandropol, which actually became the center of the movement, acquired a more stormy and organized character. Here the Bolshevik organization took control of the uprising. On May 2, 1920, the armored train “Vardan Zoravar” (“Commander Vardan”), stationed at the Alexandropol station, under the command of Sarkis Musayelyan, refused to obey the government, went over to the side of the revolutionary masses and became the headquarters of the uprising. The Military Revolutionary Committee was elected to lead the uprising, which on May 10 addressed the workers, declared the Dashnak government overthrown and proclaimed Soviet power in Armenia. Alexandropol fell into the hands of the Bolsheviks. However, they showed slowness, switched to defensive tactics, and entered into negotiations with government representatives. This allowed the government to send troops loyal to it to Alexandropol, which captured the city. Soviet power in Alexandropol fell, which was decisive for the course of the uprising in other regions of Armenia. Following Alexandropol, the uprising began in Karei, then in Sarikamysh. But here, too, the uprisings were suppressed by government troops. In mid-May, the uprising swept Norbayazet district, where the rebels held many villages until the end of May. For more than a month and a half, the rebel workers of Kazakh and Shamshadin, where the uprising also began in mid-May, resisted government troops. Then the uprising spread to the villages of Ijevan district, and at the end of May to Zangezur. Thus, the uprising became widespread, although it was predominantly in the nature of isolated actions. It was precisely this fragmentation and lack of coordination of actions that made the task of the government easier, which managed to suppress the May armed uprising of the working people of Armenia. The outcome of the uprising was also influenced by the fact that Soviet Russia, busy at that time with a brutal struggle against Wrangel and the White Poles, was deprived of the opportunity to provide direct assistance to the Armenian rebels. The Dashnak government carried out brutal reprisals against the participants in the uprising. Hundreds of people were thrown into prison, many participants in the uprising were forced to leave Armenia and flee to Soviet Azerbaijan. During the Uprising, hundreds of workers gave their lives for Soviet power, including the leaders of Bolshevik organizations Ghukas Ghukasyan, Hovhannes Sarukhanyan and others. After the suppression of the uprising, S. Alaverdyan, S. Musayelyan, B. Gharibjanyan, A. Panyan, E. Sevyan and others were executed. The heroic May armed uprising clearly showed that the Dashnak government does not enjoy the support of the working masses. And although the uprising ended in defeat, the days of the Dashnak government were already numbered. The establishment of Soviet power in Armenia became the primary task of the working people.
4. Establishment of Soviet power in Armenia
The government of Soviet Russia closely followed developments in Armenia. It was clear that the Entente countries were making every effort to use Armenia in the fight against Soviet Russia, which was especially important for them after Soviet power won in Azerbaijan. Taking this into account, Soviet Russia made attempts to tear Armenia away from the Entente countries, establish normal relations with it, and prevent Armenia from becoming an anti-Soviet springboard. To this end, the government of Soviet Russia made a proposal to begin negotiations between the RSFSR and Armenia. At the initiative of the Soviet government, at the end of May 1920, negotiations began in Moscow between the government delegations of Soviet Russia and Armenia. The delegation of Soviet Russia included People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs G. Chicherin and his deputy L. Karakhan; The Armenian delegation was headed by the Armenian writer Left Shant. The Soviet side proposed concluding an agreement between the two countries. Soviet Russia offered its mediation in resolving border issues between Armenia and Soviet Azerbaijan and in regulating Armenian-Turkish relations. 5 The Armenian delegation delayed the negotiations in every possible way because its government pinned its hopes on the Western powers, which at that time were negotiating with Turkey regarding the conclusion of a peace treaty with it. The Dashnak government hoped that the Entente countries would force defeated Turkey to satisfy the interests of Armenia. The Soviet government showed consistent persistence in negotiations with Armenia and offered to continue negotiations in Yerevan, repeatedly stating that Soviet Russia was guided by a selfless desire to help the Armenian people. “All actions of Soviet Russia in the Caucasus,” stated the Soviet government, “are aimed at providing friendly action to the further calm development of the Armenian people, just like their neighboring peoples. During the difficult trials experienced by the Armenian people and other peoples of the Middle East, Soviet Russia stands as a selfless friend of workers of every nationality.” Boris Legrand, plenipotentiary representative of the RSFSR in Armenia, was appointed head of the Soviet delegation to continue negotiations in Yerevan. But the Dashnak government, which had pinned its hopes on the Treaty of Sèvres, again delayed the resumption of negotiations. It soon became clear, however, that the delay in negotiations was very costly for the Armenian people. The short-sighted policy of the Dashnak government led to the fact that Armenia found itself isolated, face to face with Turkey. Carrying out an aggressive policy, Türkiye launched an invasion of Armenia. In September 1920, Turkish troops went on the offensive and occupied Sarikamysh and Kagygzvan on the 20th of the same month. On October 30, the Turks occupied Kare, and on November 6, Alexandropol. In vain did representatives of the Dashnak government in Europe turn to the allied governments and the League of Nations for help; all these appeals yielded nothing, no help came. The Soviet government assessed the Turkish invasion as aggression. In October 1920, V.I. Lenin noted that the Turks, having launched an attack on Armenia, had the intention of capturing the entire Transcaucasus. The war with Turkey brought new suffering to the Armenian people. In the occupied territory of Armenia, the Turks committed atrocities, destroyed the Armenian population, and plundered villages. Streams of refugees poured into the central regions of the country. General position has become catastrophic in the country. The war with Turkey consumed the last material resources of the country and left agricultural production without workers. The country was dominated by anarchy, robbery and arbitrariness. The government was unable to control the situation within the country; even army units were no longer subordinate to the authorities. On November 24, the government of A. Ohanjanyan resigned. On the same day, a new Dashnak government was formed, headed by Simon Vratsyan. In its declaration, the new government was forced to admit the country's hopeless situation, however, it could not indicate a way out of it. The salvation of the country, which was on the verge of destruction, was taken into their own hands by the masses under the leadership of the Communist Party. It ended back in June 1920 organizational design Communist Party
Book: Lecture notes World History of the 20th Century
4. Revolutionary movement in Europe in 1918-1923.
Causes and characteristics of the revolutionary movement. In 1918-1923 Europe was hit by a powerful revolutionary movement, caused by:
The fatigue of the peoples of Europe from a senseless war that brought only losses, suffering and a drop in living standards;
Aggravating everyone social problems, mass discontent;
Disappointment in the existing power structures that could not eliminate the threat of war and ensure a fair democratic system;
The weakening and, finally, the collapse of the Russian, Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, and German empires;
A powerful national liberation movement of oppressed peoples;
The post-war decline in production and structural restructuring of economies;
The injustice of the Versailles-Washington treaty system;
The influence of revolutionary events in Russia;
An attempt by the Bolsheviks to kindle the flames of world revolution.
All these reasons affected European countries in different ways. In some, revolutions broke out, in others, serious reforms were carried out, in others, dictatorial, fascist regimes were established.
The revolutions affected mainly the countries of Central and Eastern Europe. This is explained by the fact that the countries of this particular region were defeated in the war and national problems here became extremely aggravated.
During revolutions, the dominant desire was to create democratic republics with a fair social structure. At the same time, in all countries except Austria, there were strong trends in favor of a radical breakdown of not only the existing system, but also society itself. Under the strong influence of the October events in Russia, demands for the implementation of a socialist revolution and the establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat in the form of Soviet power began to be put forward. But this trend did not become dominant.
In addition to these trends, the desire to achieve national liberation and create our own state became important.
Thus, the revolutions of 1917-1919 in Europe can be characterized as national (for Finland, the Baltic countries, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, South Slavic peoples, Ukraine), social and democratic (except for these states, also for Austria, Germany, Bulgaria).
A feature of revolutions was their combination with interstate conflicts (Polish-Ukrainian, Soviet-Polish, Ukrainian-Romanian-Czech wars, etc.) and civil wars (in Russia and Hungary).
In the revolutionary movement of 1918-1923. Two stages can be distinguished. In the first stage (1918-1920), the revolutions were caused by the influence of the First World War and the struggle of oppressed peoples for national liberation. In the second stage (1921-1923), revolutionary movements were mainly inspired by the Comintern, which sought to spark a world revolution.
Revolution in Finland. The revolution in Finland took place under the direct influence of events in Russia. Finland since early XIX V. was part of Russian Empire and enjoyed broad autonomy. During the February Revolution, a coalition government was created here headed by P.E. Svinhuvud. This government achieved independence for the country after the October events and was recognized by Soviet Russia. However, the Bolshevik coup inspired supporters of the socialist revolution to take radical action. Worker executive committee in January 1918 he attempted to seize power. On January 28, he established control over the capital of Gel-sinki and created a revolutionary government that concluded a treaty of friendship with Soviet Russia. In response, the Svinhufvud government, which refused to resign, turned to Germany for help. March 5, 1918 German troops landed in Finland and liquidated Soviet power by the end of April.
Collapse of Austria-Hungary. National liberation revolutions of the peoples of the empire. In the autumn of 1918, the South Slavic lands of Austria-Hungary were engulfed in a peasant movement, and revolutionary uprisings took place in the army and at the front. In this situation, on October 5-6, 1918 in Zagreb (Croatia), at a meeting of representatives of parties from all the South Slavic lands of Austria-Hungary, the People's Assembly (People's Council) of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs was formed. It declared as its goal "the unification of all Slovenes, Croats and Serbs into a people's, free and independent state." On October 29, 1918, the severance of all relations with the Habsburg Monarchy and the creation of a sovereign state of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs (SHS State) was announced. The People's Council became the supreme body of power.
The new state was in a difficult situation. Under the slogans of distribution of landowners' land, the peasant movement intensified, and military operations against the Entente troops continued. Italy sought to seize not only the South Slavic lands on the Adriatic coast, promised to it by the Entente powers, but also a much larger territory.
In this situation, Serbia could provide real assistance to the CXC State, which sent its troops to the Adriatic coast, which neutralized the actions of Italian troops. Serbia claimed to unite all South Slavic lands under the scepter of the Karadjordjevic dynasty. Croatian and Slovenian leaders feared Serbian hegemony in single state. Without its own armed forces, the SXC State could not defend its sovereignty and was forced to reach an agreement with Serbia. As a result of negotiations between the delegation of the People's Assembly and the government of Serbia, on December 1, 1918, an agreement was signed on the creation of a single Yugoslav state - the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes - the Kingdom of the SHS. Montenegro subsequently became part of it.
On October 25, 1918, demonstrations and rallies took place in Budapest, at which the population demanded to immediately make peace, secede from Austria and proclaim the Hungarian Republic.
On October 28, the National Council in Prague proclaimed the creation of the Czechoslovak state. On October 3, the Slovak Council announced the separation of Slovakia from Hungary and determined the right of the Slovak people to decide their destiny on the basis of complete independence.
On the night of October 31, revolutions occurred simultaneously in Budapest and Vienna, as a result of which the Habsburg monarchy was overthrown in Austria-Hungary. On November 12, the formation of the Austrian Republic was proclaimed, and on November 16, the Hungarian Republic.
On November 1, 1918, the Ukrainians rebelled in Lviv, but immediately met resistance from the Poles. The Polish-Ukrainian war began. On November 13, the act of proclamation of the Western Ukrainian People's Republic was promulgated. Polish lands that were part of the empire became integral part restored Polish state. Thus, the Austro-Hungarian Empire ceased to exist, and new states were formed on its ruins.
National revolution in Hungary. The first Hungarian government was headed by Count M. Karoji, who headed the National Rada during the days of the revolution. The economic and political situation of the young republic was difficult. The national economy was destroyed by the war, a significant number of enterprises were closed, and inflation grew rapidly.
The Carey government announced a number of reforms:
Universal suffrage was introduced;
A law on freedom of unions and meetings and the creation of political organizations was adopted;
An 8-hour working day was introduced;
It was announced that autonomy would be granted to national minorities;
The government developed a law on land reform, on the basis of which the state could expropriate landowners' estates ranging in size from 200 to 500 holds (holds - 0.57 hectares). It was supposed to divide these lands between the peasants into plots of 5-20 holds, which were transferred on terms of perpetual lease or redemption for 50 years. However, the law was not adopted.
After the signing of the armistice, Hungary was forced to demobilize its armed forces, leaving only 8 divisions. her attempts to retain Slovakia and some other territories that were part of the Hungarian crown were unsuccessful. Territorial claims against Hungary were put forward by neighboring states supported by the Entente. The internal situation in the country in the spring of 1919 worsened: many enterprises were closed, inflation and unemployment were growing. A crisis was brewing in the country.
In Hungary, the Communist Party had a strong influence. It consisted mainly of Hungarian prisoners of war who had returned from Russia. It was headed by Bela Kun. The communists called for a socialist revolution and actively worked to expand their influence in the councils that were created throughout the country. The decisive factor in the communists’ coming to power was, paradoxically, the Entente’s ultimatum to create a so-called “neutral zone” between Hungary and Romania in the eastern part of the country. The Carey government did not dare to take responsibility for accepting this demand. Carey proposed that the Social Democrats form a one-party government.
The Social Democrats turned to the Communists with a proposal to join forces. On the morning of March 21, 1919, negotiations began in the transit prison where B. Kun and other leaders of the Communist Party of Ukraine were being held. B. Kuhn demanded that the Social Democrats unconditionally accept the platform of the Communist Party of Ukraine and create a single party. The Social Democrats agreed to these demands without discussion. The agreement, which was signed by the leaders of the Communist Party of Ukraine and the SDPU, recognized that they would jointly participate in the leadership of the united party and government. The party, which became known as the Socialist Party of Hungary (SPU), declared that, on behalf of the proletariat, it would immediately take full power into its own hands and enter into an alliance with Soviet Russia.
On that very day, power passed into the hands of the Revolutionary Government Council (RUR).
This Hungarian Soviet government was headed by Sándor Garbái, a former centrist social democrat. Bela Kun took over the post of People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs. The RUR simultaneously served as the governing body of the SPU. At the first meeting of the RUR, resolutions were adopted on the abolition of ranks and titles, the elimination of government representatives, and the separation of church and state. State-owned banks, nationalized enterprises employing more than 20 workers, as well as transport and trade, and apartment buildings in cities were nationalized or taken under control. A Council was created to manage the economy National economy. Land holdings, the size of which exceeded 100 holds, were confiscated from landowners. However, they were not divided among the peasants, but were transferred on a cooperative basis to agricultural workers. This decision agrarian question was erroneous: landless and land-poor peasants, who made up 4/5 of all peasant households, did not receive the long-awaited land. The nationalization of small craft workshops, hairdressers, etc. was also erroneous.
In addition, the new government introduced an 8-hour working day, increased wage, paid holidays are established, general social insurance in case of illness and accidents. Families of workers moved into apartments of the bourgeoisie, kindergartens and nurseries were located in confiscated mansions, free education was introduced in schools and universities, and medical care became free. In July, the republic partially corrected its mistake in resolving the agrarian issue by adopting a law providing landless peasants with plots of no more than 2 holds.
There were serious contradictions between the communists and social democrats in the RUR in the methods of implementing reforms and in further development revolution. If the communists believed that the working class “should resort to the merciless use of the dictatorship of the proletariat,” then the social democrats, as supporters of a more restrained policy, allowed for the possibility of legal activity by opponents of the Soviet regime.
It remained difficult international situation republics. Only Austria recognized the new republic and declared its neutrality.
Finding itself in a hostile environment (Czech, Romanian, French troops), the RUR considered its main task to be organizing the defense of the territorial integrity of the republic, and the above measures were largely aimed at mobilizing all the country’s resources. On March 25, the Hungarian Red Army was created, which numbered 300 thousand people.
On April 16, 1919, Romanian troops began military operations with the goal of capturing the territories promised by the Entente countries. On May 2, they captured Transylvania and came 140 km to Budapest. Czechoslovak troops also went on the offensive, establishing control over Slovakia and Transcarpathia in early May.
After the UČA entered the territory of Slovakia, the Slovak Soviet Republic was proclaimed here, which existed from June 16 to July 7, 1919.
The internal situation in Hungary remained difficult. There was a shortage of food and basic necessities, and the number of people dissatisfied with the new regime (peasants, property owners, intelligentsia) grew. The new government began to use “red terror” against its opponents, which led, on the one hand, to a split in the SPU, and on the other, to the consolidation of co-revolutionary forces.
Riots broke out in the Budapest garrison and in other parts of the country, but they were suppressed by troops loyal to the government. In the former territory occupied by French troops, Admiral of the Austro-Hungarian Navy M. Horthy formed the armed forces of the counter-revolution.
Clemenceau, on behalf of the Paris Peace Conference, demanded an ultimatum to stop the UChA offensive and withdraw it from Slovakia, promising to evacuate the Romanian troops operating on the eastern front.
The Soviet government accepted the ultimatum, and on July 4, the UChA retreated beyond the line established by the Entente. After this, a new demand was put before the RUR - to demobilize the UChA, and besides, the Romanian troops were not withdrawn.
Then, on July 20, the UCA went on the offensive with the goal of pushing back the Romanian troops, but through traitors in the Hungarian general staff, the plan for this offensive became known to the enemy.
Defeat of UCHA, unsuccessful attempt to implement socialist revolution in Germany, the inability of Soviet Russia to come to the aid of Hungary, which the Hungarian communists so hoped for, led to the fact that the RUR entered into negotiations with the Entente countries to end the war. B. Kun's attempt to raise the population against the "traitors" was unsuccessful, and on August 1 the RUR resigned.
The new government (“trade union”) was again headed by Sh. Garbai, but it did not include communists. The government abolished the revolutionary tribunals and restored the police and courts. Romanian troops entered Budapest and disarmed the Hungarian Red Army. The "trade union" government was overthrown. Right-wing forces came to power in the country, began to persecute participants in the revolution and eliminated the legislation of the period of Soviet power.
Revolution in Germany. The war cost Germany dearly: more than 2 million dead, millions of wounded and crippled, significant material losses, although hostilities were not conducted on its territory and it was not destroyed during the fighting.
The German revolution began with the uprising of military sailors in the city of Kiel on November 3, 1918. The transfer of power in Kiel into the hands of sailors and their founding of the first Council in Germany caused a chain reaction throughout the country. On November 9, 1918, Germany was declared a republic. On November 10, the Berlin Council created a provisional government - the Council of People's Representatives, which consisted of representatives of two workers' parties: the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) and the Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany (NSPD). The Council of People's Representatives abolished emergency laws, established an 8-hour working day and obliged entrepreneurs to conclude collective agreements with trade unions, and spoke in favor of convening a Constituent Assembly to create a constitution.
At the same time, a movement for a socialist revolution came into force in the country, for the establishment of the power of the soviets and the immediate socialization of property. This movement was led by the Spartak group, whose members were formally members of the NSDPD. The group was led by Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg. A polarization of forces began, with the government clearly in favor. The First All-German Congress of Soviets in December 1918 refused to support the slogan “All power to the Soviets!” and spoke in favor of holding elections to the Constituent Assembly, scheduled for January 19, 1919. In early January, the Communist Party of Germany, together with part of the “independents,” was formed by the Spartacists and tried to establish control over Berlin and a number of other cities, giving rise to an open armed uprising by their political rivals. The Social Democrats, having secured the support of the military, resorted to decisive action. On January 12, they established complete control over Berlin. On January 15, Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg were killed.
The attempt of the communists to come to power by armed means was eliminated.
Elections to the Constituent Assembly were held on January 19 and gave victory to the right and center parties. The communists boycotted these elections.
The Constituent Assembly worked in quiet Weimar. The constitution they developed and the republic formed on its basis were called Weimar.
The constitution adopted on July 31, 1919 legitimized the replacement of the sub-absolutist monarchy with a parliamentary republic. The constitution introduced universal suffrage and civil liberties in Germany. Germany was proclaimed a federal republic with a strong presidential power, but a government responsible to the Reichstag. Friedrich Ebert was elected the first president. Field Marshal Hindenburg became the second and last president of the Weimar Republic in 1925.
However, revolutionary ferment did not come to Germany for a long time. On April 13, 1919, it was established for three weeks Soviet authority in Bavaria, in 1923 powerful protests by workers took place in Saxony and Thuringia, and in Hamburg, under the leadership of the future leader of the Communist Party of Germany Ernst Thalmann, an armed uprising inspired by the USSR broke out.
| 1. | Lecture notes World History of the 20th Century |
| 2. | 2. World War I |
| 3. | 3. Revolutionary events in the Russian Empire in 1917. Bolshevik revolution |
| 4. | 4. Revolutionary movement in Europe in 1918-1923. |
| 5. | 5. Establishment of the Bolshevik dictatorship. National liberation movement and civil war in Russia |
| 6. | 6. Education of the foundations of the post-war world. Versailles-Washington system |
| 7. | 7. Attempts to revise post-war treaties in the 20s |
| 8. | 8. The main ideological and political trends of the first half of the 20th century. |
| 9. | 9. National liberation movements |
| 10. | 10. Stabilization and “prosperity” in Europe and the USA in the 20s |
| 11. | 11. World economic crisis (1929-1933) |
| 12. | 12. F. Roosevelt's "New Deal" |
| 13. | 13. Great Britain in the 30s. Economic crisis. "National Government" |
| 14. | 14. "Popular Front" in France |
| 15. | 15. The establishment of the Nazi dictatorship in Germany. A. Hitler |
| 16. | 16. Fascist dictatorship b. Mussolini in Italy |
| 17. | 17. Revolution of 1931 in Spain. |
| 18. | 18. Czechoslovakia in the 20-30s |
| 19. | 19. Countries of Eastern and South-Eastern Europe in the 20-30s |
| 20. | 20. Proclamation of the USSR and the establishment of the Stalinist regime |
| 21. | 21. Soviet modernization of the USSR |
| 22. | 22. Japan between the two world wars |
| 23. | 23. National revolution in China. Chiang Kai-shek. Domestic and foreign policy of the Kuomintang |
| 24. | 24. Civil war in China. Proclamation of the People's Republic of China |
| 25. | 25. India in the 20-30s |
| 26. | 26. National movements and revolutions in Arab countries, Turkey, Iran, Afghanistan. The origins of the Palestinian problem. K. Ataturk, Rezahan |
| 27. | 27. National movements in the countries of Shvdenko-East Asia (Burma, Indochina, Indonesia) |
| 28. | 28. Africa between the two world wars |
| 29. | 29. Development of Latin American countries in the 20-30s |
| 30. | 30. Education, science and technology |
| 31. | 31. Development of literature of the 20-30s |
| 32. | 32. Art of the 20-30s |
| 33. | 33. Formation of hotbeds of the Second World War. Creation of the Berlin-Rome-Tokyo bloc |
| 34. | 34. Policy of “appeasement” of the aggressor |
| 35. | 35. USSR in the system of international relations |
| 36. | 36. Causes, nature, periodization of the Second World War |
| 37. | 37. Germany's attack on Poland and the beginning of World War II. Fighting in Europe in 1939-1941. |
| 38. | 38. Attack of Nazi Germany on the USSR. Defensive battles in the summer and autumn of 1941. Battle of Moscow |
| 39. | 39. Military operations on the Eastern Front in 1942-1943. A radical turning point during the Second World War. Liberation of the territory of the USSR |
| 40. | 40. Formation of the anti-Hitler coalition. International relations during the Second World War |
| 41. | 41. The situation in warring and occupied countries. Resistance movement in Europe and Asia during the Second World War |
| 42. | 42. Main events of the Second World War in Africa, in the Pacific Ocean (1940-1945) |
| 43. |
