Readiness for school implies such a level of physical, mental and social development child, which is necessary for successful learning school curriculum and in which the requirements of systematic training will not be excessive, will not lead to disruption of the child’s health, disruption of socio-psychological adaptation and a decrease in the effectiveness of training.
When using various diagnostic methods, it is necessary to remember that the age norms associated with most methods are not absolute and unchangeable, suitable for assessing the level of development at all times and for all children without exception. Norms are almost always relative and reflect the state of a particular sample of children from which these samples were obtained. In each specific case, when, as a result of the examination, a characteristic is given to the child, including an assessment of his level psychological development, indicates which sample or category of children the norm with which the development indicator is compared belongs to of this child. In addition, it should be borne in mind that the norms themselves are changeable: as progress social development the average level of intellectual, personal and behavioral development of children changes. Consequently, it is impossible to use standards that were established more than ten years ago, since they require mandatory re-checking and correction every three to five years.
Study of readiness for schooling of older children preschool age produced using scientifically proven research methods, the quality of which is subject to strict requirements. Only valid, accurate and reliable methods should be used, otherwise there is a serious risk of obtaining unreliable data and making errors in conclusions. The user of the method is responsible for the quality of the method used and for obtaining results that can be trusted.
There are a number of moral and ethical requirements for conducting diagnostic examinations of children. The main ones are the following:
results diagnostic examination under no circumstances should they be used to harm the child;
Diagnosis of children can and should be carried out (with the exception of special occasions from the field of medical or legal practice) only with the consent of the children themselves and their parents;
Parents, with the exception of those who have been deprived of parental rights by law, can know the results of a diagnostic examination of their children, as well as the conclusions that a specialist made based on them;
The results of a diagnostic examination without taking into account many other factors and without taking into account the opinions of teachers and parents cannot serve as a basis for determining the fate of the child and making a conclusion about the possibility of his education and upbringing;
Psychodiagnostics of children should be carried out in close cooperation of a psychologist, educator, and teacher.
To work with older preschoolers, diagnostic tools are used, which are tests that are divided into groups according to the following main characteristics: individual and group (collective), verbal and nonverbal, quantitative and qualitative, gradual and alternative, general and special.
Individual tests are designed to work with each subject individually; group tests allow simultaneous testing of several subjects. Verbal tests are based on the analysis of the subjects’ own statements; nonverbal tests use signs other than speech for generalizations and conclusions. Quantitative tests make it possible to obtain numerical indicators of the degree of development of the property being studied, and qualitative tests provide its detailed descriptive characteristics. Gradual tests make it possible to express in numbers the degree of development of the property being studied using a certain scale; alternative ones allow only two mutually exclusive conclusions such as “yes” or “no”. General tests intended for research of any psychological properties general, such as general intelligence. Special tests evaluate some special property that distinguishes a person from other people, for example, verbal or figurative thinking.
In pedagogy, group tests dominate, since they are the most economical for a specialist. However, it should be remembered that data from group tests is never absolutely reliable, especially in the case of a low result. There are many reasons leading to an inadequate decrease in test indicators: an unfavorable neuropsychic state of the child at the time of the examination (confusion, excitement or anxiety associated with the examination, with being in a new environment or caused by previous random impressions; the child may be sick on that very day head, he may be upset about something, etc.); random distractions caused by the behavior of other children, etc. Consequently, based on the test results, final conclusions that negatively characterize the assessed level should not be drawn.
The practice of determining “readiness” and selecting children should not contain as diagnostic criteria only a set of indicators characterizing the stock of information, knowledge, operational skills, multiplied by the speed of reaction. In turn, methods should evaluate not only “learning” (“training”). The use of such techniques has a double negative effect: firstly, it directs parents and educators towards “active training”, and secondly, for most children it creates a situation of inadequate demands. Methods of psychological and pedagogical diagnostics must be adequate to the specific objectives of the examination and aimed, first of all, at differentiating qualitative originality individual development, as well as the identification of “risk factors” in development, for a comprehensive assessment of the child’s development by comparing data from observations of parents and analysis of the child’s activity when performing a set of tasks.
Examinations can be carried out in the presence of parents. The only exceptions are those methods during which no, even accidental, influence on the child’s choice is allowed (for example, determining the dominance of a cognitive or play motive). In other cases, when completing tasks, the presence of parents is desirable. This gives children greater confidence, and, in addition, when parents personally see what tasks their children are performing, they do not have any doubts about the bias and inadequacy of the examination. If necessary, parents are given recommendations on what games, exercises, and activities can be done at home to prepare their child for school.
Children must be at least 5 years 6 months old at the time of examination. The procedure for determining readiness for school is carried out in the first half of the day from 9 to 12 o'clock, preferably on Tuesday or Wednesday, when the maximum level of children's performance during the week is observed. Total duration Children’s work in one lesson is no more than 40-45 minutes. Tasks that children did not have time to complete during this time are transferred to the second lesson. If a child cannot cope with the general pace of work or refuses to perform it during a frontal examination, it is recommended to subject him to an individual check.
Required condition successful conduct of a diagnostic examination is the transition of an adult from the position of a teacher to the position of a person conducting diagnostics. This inevitably entails a change in its activities. If in the process of everyday work the main goal is to teach, to achieve the correct answer in this moment, then in the process of diagnostics - to obtain reliable data on the state of the child’s readiness for school.
From the very beginning of the examination, it is important to analyze the child’s reaction to the examination situation: how open he is to contact, whether he is active (for example, studying the situation in the room, examining toys and objects in it with interest), or whether he is disinhibited (fussing, trying to get up, twirls something in his hands, etc.). It should also be noted the manifestation of lethargy, tension, reluctance to draw attention to oneself, and fear of entering into a conversation. All these facts can be associated both with the psychodynamic (innate) characteristics of the child, for example, impulsivity or rigidity, and with such qualities of his personality as anxiety or demonstrativeness. The observations obtained are subsequently compared with test data, which helps to understand the nature of the preschooler’s intellectual or emotional deviations.
During the examination, one should alternate methods so that the study of memory follows the analysis of thinking, and the study of perception follows the study of creativity. It is recommended to start diagnostics with tasks that involve drawing (both on a free and on a given topic), giving the child time to enter into the examination situation. During the interview, it is necessary to establish friendly, relaxed contact with the child, create favorable conditions for him, a familiar, comfortable environment. All tasks should be carried out in a playful way and perceived by children as games. A play situation allows children to relax and helps reduce stress. In a situation where a child is afraid to answer and does not communicate well with an adult, he should be emotionally supported; if necessary, use tactile contact: pat on the head, hug, accompanying the actions with a verbal expression of confidence that the baby will cope well with all the games. Such support and constant confirmation as the tasks progress that the child is doing everything correctly contributes to the establishment of contact between the experimenter and the subject, and ultimately guarantees the purity of the results. It should be noted that the tactic of approval, regardless of the actual result, is recommended in communication with all children, since a positive assessment from an adult is especially important to them.
During the examination, it is not recommended to rush children or rush with a hint; show your displeasure, dissatisfaction; highlight negative results and analyze the results with parents in the presence of the child.
The examination results may be complicated due to:
· difficulties in contacting unfamiliar adults (sometimes this depends not on the child, but on his interlocutors);
· fear of bad results (parents are often very worried themselves and scare their children with the “exam”);
· inability of the subject (by various reasons) concentrate, concentrate attention;
· individual characteristics of activity (in particular, slow pace of work).
In the diagnostic process, not only the final result of the task is important, but also the progress of the work. Therefore, when a preschooler completes each task, it is necessary to note on the examination card the indicators of his activity, health status, difficulties, and necessary help.
If the diagnostic results show low level readiness for school and the child needs special correctional and developmental work, all sections reflecting his development at the time of the examination are filled out in the psychological map, the main problems of the child are recorded and a plan of appropriate measures is outlined. However, it should be remembered that it is unacceptable to make a diagnosis based on one or even several indicators. By themselves, in isolation, poor memory or high level imaginations indicate nothing. Poor memory can be compensated by good volition, and very developed imagination may also be with a diagnosis of schizophrenia. If, when checking psychological and pedagogical readiness for school, particularly serious deviations in the child’s activities are discovered, parents should be tactfully recommended to contact the appropriate specialists.
Pedagogical diagnostics as a means of assessing the achievements of a preschool child.
Introduction
1. Problems of pedagogical diagnostics
2. Principles of diagnostic examination:
3. Levels of educational results.
Conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction
Diagnostics is a procedure for identifying the level of achievement and readiness for any type of activity of a certain content and level of complexity.
This procedure includes analysis and synthesis existing techniques diagnostics of development, effectiveness of upbringing and teaching of children, selection of optimal methods and diagnostic criteria that allow assessing the level of formation of one or another personality quality, skills, competencies and attitudes of pupils. This means that, based on the diagnostic results, it will be possible to correlate the child’s achievements or failures with strengths and weaknesses his personality, changes in the psychophysical, cognitive-speech and personal-social development of the child in the implementation of a holistic educational process at the preschool educational institution. Therefore, diagnostics today are usually correlated with monitoring the effectiveness or monitoring of the educational process in kindergarten.
In accordance with federal state requirements, it can be the main one for the following types of monitoring: intermediate, final and monitoring of continuity of results personal development when the child goes to school.
Problems of pedagogical diagnostics
The problem of pedagogical diagnostics remains one of the pressing problems of the theory and methodology of educating preschool children. Diagnostics allows the teacher to understand whether he is carrying out his activities in the right direction. She is recognized:
first, optimize the process individual training;
secondly, provide correct definition learning outcomes;
thirdly, guided by the selected criteria, minimize errors in assessing children’s knowledge.
“Diagnostics” (Greek) - “cognition, determination.”
Pedagogical diagnostics is a mechanism that allows us to identify the individual characteristics and development prospects of a child.
The main goal of a diagnostic examination is to obtain not so much qualitatively new results as operational information about the real state and trends in changes in the object of diagnosis for the correction of the pedagogical process.
The main task of diagnostics is to obtain information about the individual characteristics of a child’s development. Based on this information, recommendations are being developed for educators and parents on preparing older preschoolers for school.
Very often, parents of preschoolers ask questions: why are preschoolers examined and is there a need for it? Pedagogical diagnostics are necessary in order to assist in choosing optimal, favorable conditions for learning and development for each child. Diagnostic examination of preschoolers is important for every child; kindergarten teachers try to warn possible problems in teaching a child, because early diagnosis and correctly selected corrective work gives excellent results.
Signs of diagnostic examination:
· Availability of goals of pedagogical examination
Systematic and repeatable
· Use of techniques specifically developed for these specific situations and conditions
Availability of procedures for their implementation
Principles of diagnostic testing
- The principle of consistency and continuity of diagnosis– manifests itself in a consistent transition from one stage, criteria and diagnostic methods to others as the individual develops, trains and educates, in the gradual complication and deepening of the diagnostic process.
- accessibility principle diagnostic techniques and procedures - visual clarity becomes the main condition for obtaining the necessary information (tests with pictures)
- predictive principle
The last principle is manifested in the orientation of diagnostic activity towards correctional work in the “zone of proximal development” of preschoolers.
The concept of “zone of proximal development” was introduced by L. S. Vygotsky: What is essential is not so much what the child has already learned, but rather what he is capable of learning, and the zone of proximal development determines what the child’s capabilities are in terms of mastering what he has not yet learned. does not master it, but can master it with the help and support of an adult.
There are a large number of methods of pedagogical diagnostics. The following are used as the main methods for identifying the degree of program implementation and assessing the level of development of children in preschool settings:
Observation
Studying the products of children's activities
Simple experiments
However, difficulties may arise during observation; one of them is the subjectivity of the observer. Therefore, in order to reduce the number of errors, one should abandon premature conclusions and continue to observe long time and only then begin to analyze the results.
Monitoring of the child should be carried out in natural situations: in a group, on a walk, while coming to kindergarten and leaving it. During the diagnostic examination, it is important to maintain a trusting, friendly atmosphere: do not express your dissatisfaction with the incorrect actions of children, do not point out mistakes, do not make value judgments, often say the words: “Very good!”, “You did well!”, “I see, You’re doing great!” The duration of an individual examination should not exceed, depending on age, from 10 to 20 minutes.
A prerequisite for successful pedagogical diagnostics is the transition from the position of a teacher to the position of a person conducting diagnostics. This inevitably entails a change in its activities. If in the process of everyday work the main goal is to provide knowledge, to achieve the correct answer at the moment, to educate, then in the process of diagnostics it is to obtain reliable data about the level of development of the child, the formation of certain skills.
When examining preschoolers, it is very important to adhere to the “rules” of pedagogical diagnostics.
Examination of preschool children It is carried out only in the first half of the day, on the most productive days (Tuesday or Wednesday). The diagnostic environment is calm and friendly. One adult works with the child; this can be a psychologist or teacher. Parents are present during the examination of preschool children. The child is not rushed to answer, but is given the opportunity to think. You cannot show your feelings in relation to the child’s answers. Do not discuss the results of a preschooler’s examination with parents in his presence. Parents must be informed in one form or another about the results of the examination. A plan is developed together with parents individual work with baby. Diagnostic examination of preschoolers is considered by both teachers and parents as necessary and important help for the child.
Since preschoolers have already mastered speech at a sufficient level and react to the personality of the teacher, it is possible to communicate with the child, during which developmental diagnostics are carried out. The examination of preschool children is carried out using both verbal and non-verbal methods. So, if a psychologist conducts a diagnostic conversation, then at this time the teacher observes the child’s behavior during the examination. He observes and records the functional and emotional condition child, showing interest (indifference) to the proposed tasks. The examination must be carried out in a playful way. You cannot force a child if he does not want to do something; it is better to postpone the diagnosis. Observations provide valuable material for correct assessment of the child’s level of development, measures of the formation of the cognitive and motivational spheres. When interpreting diagnostic results, it is necessary to listen to the opinion and explanation of the parents.
It should be noted that diagnostic examinations are carried out in all age groups 2 times a year: at the beginning of the year and at the end. Based on the results obtained at the beginning of the school year, educators not only design the educational process in their own age group, but also plan individual work on sections of the program with those children who require increased attention from the teacher and who need pedagogical support. In the middle of the school year, only children at risk are diagnosed in order to adjust plans for individual work with children in all sections of the program. At the end of the school year - first a final diagnosis, then - comparative analysis results at the beginning and end of the year. The processed and interpreted results of such analysis are the basis for designing the educational process for a new academic year. The results of the diagnostic examination of each child are entered into the diagnostic table.
Long gone are the days when the doctor was armed only with his knowledge and experience, and the diagnosis was made through a conversation and examination of the patient. Analyzes, or rather diagnostic studies, have become an integral part modern medicine, and with their help the doctor finds out what is preventing the body from working normally, what is the condition of individual organs and systems.
There is no such thing as too many tests - any analysis or research is given to the doctor Additional information, which helps to most accurately make a diagnosis, determine the stage of the disease, prescribe treatment, monitor the course of the disease and the effectiveness, as well as the safety of therapy. Any research may contain both human and hardware error, which is why it is sometimes necessary to do additional research, confirming or complementary tests.
During the examination, you can study the condition of the body on different levels.
Anatomical parameters, such as the structure and shape of the organ, size, location in relation to other organs and tissues, are examined: X-ray methods, the essence of which is to “photograph” various fabrics on special films:
- (radiography, CT scan, angiography, fluorography and others);
- ultrasonic examinations (ultrasound), which uses the effect of differing sound-conducting properties of tissues of different densities;
- endoscopic methods, in which fiber optics are used to examine the mucous membrane of the esophagus, stomach, duodenum(FEGDS - fibroesophagogastroduodenoscopy), Bladder(cystoscopy), direct and sigmoid colon(colonoscopy), abdominal cavity(laparoscopy), bronchi (bronchoscopy).
Endoscopic diagnostic interventions are often therapeutic measures, for example, to remove detected polyps or identify and stop bleeding from an ulcer during FEGDS.
The following help monitor the state of the body at the cellular and molecular level:
- general clinical and biochemical blood tests;
- cytological (from Greek word"cytus" - cell);
- studies of other biological media (saliva, sputum, swabs from the throat, urethra and other places);
- punctures bone marrow (sternal puncture), pleura ( pleural puncture), spinal canal ( lumbar puncture);
- sampling for detailed examination of microscopic pieces of tissue (biopsy).
To study the functions of organs and tissues, other diagnostic methods are used, including blood tests (determination of liver enzymes, hormones of the endocrine glands), urine ( general analysis, tests according to Zimnitsky, Nechiporenko, biochemical research on salt), feces (scatology, carbohydrates, intestinal microflora) and others biological fluids, so instrumental studies(ECG - electrocardiography, EEG - electroencephalography, myography, study of external respiration function).
Microbiological studies stand apart.
Microorganisms begin to colonize the skin and mucous membranes already at the time of birth. Throughout his life, a person has contact with a variety of microbes, many of which have not yet been studied. Microorganisms can be friends and helpers of humans, such as bifidobacteria, lactobacilli and coli, populating the intestines and performing a huge amount of work to neutralize what should not enter the blood from the intestines, produce enzymes and vitamins, and ensure normal intestinal motility.
Among the microbes there are opportunistic bacteria. In order to manifest their pathogenicity, they need conditions: either their number has exceeded threshold values, or they are not where they are supposed to live (for example, Staphylococcus epidermidis, normal for the skin, has colonized the intestines), or the body has weakened to resist and compensate harmful effects these microbes. Finally, there are pathogenic microbes, which when entering the body cause disease.
In diagnostics infectious diseases there are two directions:
Where to get tested?
But some studies (computed tomography
1) identification of the pathogen (growing it outside the body - microbiological or bacteriological culture; detection of a genetically unique piece of microbial DNA in a “substance” separated from the body (saliva, urine, blood, etc.) PCR method- polymerase chain reaction) or toxins, waste products, unique molecules of microbial structures (antigens);
2) identification specific reaction immune system for a specific pathogen - determination of antibodies - immunoglobulins (antibodies - proteins of the immune system, are highly specific, that is, each microorganism produces “its own” immunoglobulins of different classes depending on the duration of infection).
Determination of antigens and antibodies is carried out using high-precision immunological methods: ELISA - linked immunosorbent assay, RSK - compliment binding reaction, RPGA - direct agglutination reaction, etc.
With help microbiological research It is possible to identify the sensitivity of the microbe to antibiotics and other antimicrobial drugs, the stage of development of the disease, and also monitor the effectiveness of treatment and the state of immunological memory. You can also determine the effectiveness of vaccinations by using the ELISA method to determine the presence in the blood of antibodies to the pathogens of the infectious diseases against which the vaccination was carried out.
There are diagnostic studies that are more likely to fall into the category of social research, since they do not provide a doctor with useful information about the state of health. This is a study of hair structure, extrasensory diagnostics, and some computer programs - questionnaires. The information obtained by such methods is not very specific and usually requires additional traditional research. Social research may include determining the genetic father of a child or identifying a gene for resistance to AIDS.
In addition to the fact that studies reveal health status at different levels (anatomical, cellular, molecular, functional, microbiological), they are also divided into invasive and non-invasive.
Invasive tests are those studies that require discomfort for the patient. medical manipulations(taking blood from a vein, swallowing an endoscopic tube, etc.), or if the study is accompanied by a certain risk to the health and life of the subject (studies performed under anesthesia, for example bronchoscopy; studies associated with the introduction of a contrast agent - excretory urography, cystography, angiography; provocative tests - the introduction of some substance that can aggravate the disease, making the symptoms more distinct).
Considered non-invasive ultrasonography(ultrasound), urine and stool tests, ECG, EEG, radiographic studies without contrast agent (if they are not done very often), general blood test with finger prick sampling. The doctor should strive to obtain as much information as possible from non-invasive tests and only prescribe invasive tests if necessary.
Studies also differ in price: from “free” general clinical tests to ultra-modern and super-expensive studies using computers, nuclear magnetic resonances, powerful laboratories.
The price of analysis is determined by many factors: the cost of reagents and equipment, labor intensity, scarcity, invasiveness, etc. But there is no direct relationship between price and quality for most analyses, that is, the price of the study and the diagnostic value are not related to each other. Each analysis has its own significance, the studies complement each other, the studies must be carried out purposefully, taking into account the level that is of interest for assessing the state of health.
Where to get tested?
Clinical tests- blood, urine, biochemical tests blood and urine, ultrasound, x-ray, i.e. non-invasive tests can be taken at a clinic, emergency room, or hospital.
But some studies (computed tomography, microbiological, immunological, endoscopic, X-ray contrast and other special studies) can only be done in specialized diagnostic medical centers.
Signs are externally observable and recorded symptoms.
The relationship between features and categories is ambiguous. One sign may have several categories behind it.
Signs are distinguished by the fact that they can be directly observed and recorded. Categories are hidden from direct observation. Therefore, in social sciences they are usually called “latent variables”. For quantitative categories, the name “diagnostic factors” is also often used. Diagnostic inference is a transition from observed features to the level of hidden categories. A particular difficulty in psychological diagnostics lies in the fact that there are no strict one-to-one relationships between features and categories. For example, the same external act of a child (tearing out a piece of paper from a diary) can be due to completely different psychological reasons (increased level of the hidden factor “propensity to deceive” or increased level another hidden factor “fear of punishment”). For an unambiguous conclusion, one symptom (one action), as a rule, is not enough. It is necessary to analyze a complex of symptoms, that is, a series of actions in different situations.
Diagnostic conclusion - there is a transition from externally observable symptoms to the level of hidden categories.
Features of quantitative and qualitative approaches in psychodiagnostics: standardized and clinical methods.
Psychodiagnostic methods provide analysis of various symptoms and their systematic selection.
Psychodiagnostic methods are divided into qualitative and quantitative approaches.
Quantitative approach (standardized method):
Standardization (standard - standard) is the uniformity of the procedure for assessing the implementation of a methodology and conducting a test.
This includes all testing methods: questionnaires, intelligence tests, tests of special abilities and achievements.
Areas of application: easily measured psychological reality.
Peculiarities:
Economical (group, using computers).
Psychometrically or technically sound (correct diagnosis).
Qualitative approach (clinical method):
Individual case analysis. Not a pathology!
Understanding and expert assessment methods are used: conversation, observation, projective techniques, analysis life path, analysis of activity products.
Areas of application: difficult to measure psychological reality (meanings, experiences).
Peculiarities:
Strictly individual method.
Psychometrically not substantiated.
The effectiveness depends on the professionalism of the psychologist and his work experience.
5.Psychological diagnosis. Causes of diagnostic errors. Requirements for a psychological diagnosis.
Diagnosis- from Greek. Recognition.
Medical understanding of diagnosis:
Symptom - from Greek. A sign of some disease. They are divided into two types - subjective (interoceptive sensations) and objective (measurement results, blood test, ECG).
Syndrome - from Greek. Clutch. A natural combination of symptoms caused by a single pathogenesis (pathology), considered as an independent disease, or as a stage of a disease.
Diagnosis is the determination of the essence and characteristics of the disease based on a comprehensive examination of the patient.
The medical understanding of the diagnosis is firmly associated with the disease, a deviation from the norm. This understanding also prevailed in psychology, that is, psychological diagnosis- this is always the identification of the hidden cause of the discovered trouble.
S. Rosenzweig proposed using diagnosis exclusively for “naming” any disorders or disorders.
Psychological diagnosis turns out to be broader than in medicine. Both in norm and in pathology. And normally, it is not necessary to search for any violations or disorders.
Psychological diagnosis(Burlachuk L.F.) - the result of the activities of a psychologist, aimed at clarifying the essence of individual mental characteristics of a person in order to assess them current state, forecasting further development and developing recommendations for psychotherapeutic and psychocorrective influences, determined by the task of a psychodiagnostic examination.
Subject of psychological diagnosis– there is an establishment of individual psychological differences in normality and pathology. The most important element is to clarify in each individual case why these manifestations are found in the behavior of the subject, what are their causes and consequences.
Requirements for a psychological diagnosis.
A psychological diagnosis has a detailed and complex (subjectivity, causality, presence of contradictions) nature.
Psychological diagnosis is the result of systemic technical diagnostics. Not only the individual units of analysis are described, but also their relationships. The reasons for such relationships are revealed and a behavioral forecast is made based on such analysis. The diagnosis cannot be made using one method.
A psychological diagnosis must be structured. Options mental state people must be brought into a certain system: they are grouped according to the level of significance, according to relatedness of origin, according to possible lines of causal origin. Specialists process the relationships of various parameters in a structured diagnosis in the form of diagnosticograms. The simplest option is a psychodiagnostic profile.
Causes of diagnostic errors.
A. Levitsky sees the following as sources of inaccuracies and errors: insufficient time allotted for the examination, lack of reliable sources of information about the subject and the low level of our knowledge about the laws governing behavioral disorders.
A more complete analysis of the causes of diagnostic errors is presented by Z. Plevitskaya, who distinguished them into two main groups.
Errors related to data parsing:
observation errors(for example, “blindness” to traits important for diagnosis, personality manifestations; observation of traits in a qualitatively or quantitatively distorted form);
registration errors(for example, the emotional coloring of the entries in the protocol, which indicates more about the attitude of the psychologist towards the subject rather than about the characteristics of his behavior; cases when an abstract assessment is passed off as a substantive assessment, differences in the understanding of the same terms different people);
instrumental errors arise as a result of the inability to use equipment and other measuring equipment, both in the technical and interpretive aspects.
Errors related to data processing:
"first impression" effect- error based on overestimation of the diagnostic value of primary information;
attribution error- attributing to the subject traits that he does not have, or considering unstable traits as stable;
false cause error;
cognitive radicalism- a tendency to overestimate the value of working hypotheses and a reluctance to look for better solutions;
cognitive conservatism- extremely careful formulation of hypotheses.
