RUSSIAN STATE UNIVERSITY OF PHYSICAL CULTURE, SPORT, YOUTH AND TOURISM (GTSOLIFK)
MOSCOW 2013
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IMMUNE SYSTEM The immune system is a collection of lymphoid organs, tissues and cells,
providing supervision over the constancy of the cellular and antigenic identity of the body. Central or primary authorities immune system are thymus(thymus), bone marrow and fetal liver. They “train” cells, make them immunologically competent, and also regulate the body’s immunological reactivity. Peripheral or secondary organs of the immune system ( The lymph nodes, spleen, accumulation of lymphoid tissue in the intestine) perform an antibody-forming function and carry out a cellular immune response.
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Fig.1 Thymus gland (thymus).
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1.1. Lymphocytes are cells of the immune system, also called immunocytes, or
immunocompetent cells. They come from a pluripotent hematopoietic stem cell that appears in the gall sac of the human embryo at 2-3 weeks of development. Between 4 and 5 weeks of pregnancy, stem cells migrate to the embryonic liver, which becomes the largest hematopoietic organ during early pregnancy. Differentiation of lymphoid cells occurs in two ways directions: to perform the functions of cellular and humoral immunity. The maturation of lymphoid progenitor cells occurs under the influence of the microenvironment of the tissues into which they migrate.
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One group of lymphoid progenitor cells migrates to the thymus gland, an organ
formed from the 3rd and 4th gill pouches in the 6-8th week of pregnancy. Lymphocytes mature under the influence epithelial cells cortical layer of the thymus and then migrate to its medulla. These cells, called thymocytes, thymus-dependent lymphocytes or T cells, migrate to the peripheral lymphoid tissue, where they are found starting at 12 weeks of pregnancy. T cells fill certain areas of the lymphoid organs: between the follicles in the depths of the cortical layer of the lymph nodes and in the periarterial areas of the spleen, consisting of lymphoid tissue. Making up 60-70% of the number of peripheral blood lymphocytes, T cells are mobile and constantly circulate from the blood into the lymphoid tissue and back into the blood through the thoracic lymphatic duct, where their content reaches 90%. This migration ensures interaction between lymphoid organs and sites of antigenic stimulation with the help of sensitized T cells. Mature T lymphocytes perform various functions: provide cellular immunity reactions, help in the formation of humoral immunity, enhance the function of B-lymphocytes, hematopoietic stem cells, regulate migration, proliferation, differentiation of hematopoietic cells, etc.
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1.2 A second population of lymphoid progenitor cells is responsible for humoral
immunity and antibody formation. In birds, these cells migrate to the bursa of Fabricius, an organ located in the cloaca, and mature there. No similar formation has been found in mammals. It is believed that in mammals these lymphoid precursors mature in the bone marrow with possible differentiation in the liver and intestinal lymphoid tissue. These lymphocytes, which are known as bone marrow either bursa-dependent or B cells migrate to peripheral lymphoid organs for final differentiation and are distributed in the follicular proliferation centers of the lymph nodes, spleen and intestinal lymphoid tissue. B cells are less labile than T cells and circulate from the blood into the lymphoid tissue much more slowly. The number of B lymphocytes is 15-20% of all lymphocytes circulating in the blood.
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As a result of antigenic stimulation, B cells turn into plasma cells that synthesize
antibodies or immunoglobulins; enhance the function of some T-lymphocytes, participate in the formation of the T-lymphocyte response. The population of B lymphocytes is heterogeneous, and they functional abilities are different.
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LYMPHOCYTE
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1.3 Macrophages are cells of the immune system that originate from bone marrow stem cells. IN
in peripheral blood they are represented by monocytes. Upon penetration into tissues, monocytes transform into macrophages. These cells make the first contact with the antigen, recognize its potential danger and transmit a signal to immunocompetent cells (lymphocytes). Macrophages participate in cooperative interactions between antigen and T and B cells in immune responses. In addition, they play the role of the main effector cells in inflammation, making up the majority of mononuclear cells in the infiltrates of delayed-type hypersensitivity. Among macrophages, there are regulatory cells - helpers and suppressors, which participate in the formation of the immune response.
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Macrophages include blood monocytes, connective tissue histiocytes, endothelial cells
capillaries of hematopoietic organs, Kupffer cells of the liver, cells of the wall of the alveoli of the lung (pulmonary macrophages) and the wall of the peritoneum (peritoneal macrophages).
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Electron photography of macrophages
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Macrophage
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Fig.2. The immune system
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Immunity. Types of immunity.
- Throughout life, the human body is exposed to foreign microorganisms (viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa), chemical, physical and other factors that can lead to the development of diseases.
- The main tasks of all body systems are to find, recognize, remove or neutralize any foreign agent (either one that came from outside or one’s own, but which changed under the influence of some reason and became “alien”). To fight infections, protect against transformed, malignant tumor cells and maintain homeostasis in the body, there is a complex dynamic system protection. The main role in this system is played by immunological reactivity or immunity.
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Immunity is the body’s ability to maintain a constant internal environment, to create
immunity to infectious and non-infectious agents (antigens) entering it, neutralizing and removing foreign agents and their breakdown products from the body. A series of molecular and cellular reactions that occur in the body after an antigen enters it constitutes an immune response, resulting in the formation of humoral and/or cellular immunity. The development of one or another type of immunity is determined by the properties of the antigen, the genetic and physiological capabilities of the responding organism.
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Humoral immunity- a molecular reaction that occurs in the body in response to ingestion
antigen. The induction of a humoral immune response is ensured by the interaction (cooperation) of three main types of cells: macrophages, T- and B-lymphocytes. Macrophages phagocytose the antigen and, after intracellular proteolysis, present its peptide fragments on their cell membrane to T helper cells. T-helpers cause activation of B-lymphocytes, which begin to proliferate, transform into blast cells, and then, through a series of successive mitoses, into plasma cells that synthesize antibodies specific to a given antigen. Important role in the initiation of these processes belongs to regulatory substances that are produced by immunocompetent cells.
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Activation of B cells by T helper cells for antibody production is not universal
for all antigens. This interaction develops only when T-dependent antigens enter the body. To induce an immune response by T-independent antigens (polysaccharides, protein aggregates of a regulatory structure), the participation of T-helper cells is not required. Depending on the inducing antigen, B1 and B2 subclasses of lymphocytes are distinguished. Plasma cells synthesize antibodies in the form of immunoglobulin molecules. Five classes of immunoglobulins have been identified in humans: A, M, G, D, E. In case of impaired immunity and development allergic diseases, especially autoimmune diseases, diagnostics are carried out for the presence and ratio of immunoglobulin classes.
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Cellular immunity. Cellular immunity is cellular reactions that occur in the body in
response to antigen exposure. T lymphocytes are also responsible for cellular immunity, also known as delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH). The mechanism by which T cells interact with antigen is not yet clear, but these cells best recognize antigen bound to the cell membrane. Regardless of whether the information about antigens is transmitted by macrophages, B lymphocytes or some other cells, T lymphocytes begin to change. First, blast forms of T-cells are formed, then through a series of divisions - T-effectors that synthesize and secrete biologically active substances- lymphokines, or HRT mediators. The exact number of mediators and their molecular structure are still unknown. These substances are distinguished by their biological activity. Under the influence of a factor that inhibits the migration of macrophages, these cells accumulate in areas of antigenic irritation.
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Macrophage activating factor significantly enhances phagocytosis and digestion
cell ability. There are also macrophages and leukocytes (neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils) that attract these cells to the site of antigenic irritation. In addition, lymphotoxin is synthesized, which can dissolve target cells. Another group of T-effectors, known as T-killers (killers), or K-cells, are represented by lymphocytes that have cytotoxicity, which they exhibit towards virus-infected and tumor cells. There is another mechanism of cytotoxicity, antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity, in which antibodies recognize target cells and then effector cells respond to these antibodies. Null cells, monocytes, macrophages and lymphocytes called NK cells have this ability.
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Fig. 3 Diagram of the immune response
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Ri.4. Immune response.
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TYPES OF IMMUNITY
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Species immunity is a hereditary characteristic of a certain species of animal. For example, cattle does not suffer from syphilis, gonorrhea, malaria and other diseases contagious to humans, horses do not suffer from canine distemper, etc.
Based on strength or durability, species immunity is divided into absolute and relative.
Absolute species immunity is the type of immunity that occurs in an animal from the moment of birth and is so strong that no influence external environment it cannot be weakened or destroyed (for example, no additional influences can cause polio when dogs and rabbits are infected with this virus). There is no doubt that in the process of evolution, absolute species immunity is formed as a result of the gradual hereditary consolidation of acquired immunity.
Relative species immunity is less durable, depending on the influences of the external environment on the animal. For example, birds in normal conditions immune to anthrax. However, if the body is weakened by cooling and fasting, they become ill with this disease.
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Acquired immunity is divided into:
- naturally acquired,
- artificially acquired.
Each of them, according to the method of occurrence, is divided into active and passive.
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Occurs after an infection. diseases
When protective antibodies pass from the mother's blood through the placenta into the blood of the fetus, they are also transmitted with mother's milk
Occurs after vaccination (vaccination)
Injecting a person with serum containing antibodies against microbes and their toxins. specific antibodies.
Scheme 1. ACQUIRED IMMUNITY.
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The mechanism of immunity to infectious diseases. The doctrine of phagocytosis. Pathogenic microbes
penetrate through the skin and mucous membranes into the lymph, blood, nervous tissue and other organ tissues. For most microbes, these “entry gates” are closed. When studying the mechanisms of the body's defense against infection, one has to deal with phenomena of varying biological specificity. Indeed, the body is protected from germs by both covering epithelium, the specificity of which is very relative, and antibodies that are produced against a specific pathogen. Along with this, there are mechanisms whose specificity is relative (for example, phagocytosis), and various protective reflexes. The protective activity of tissues that prevents the penetration of microbes into the body is due to various mechanisms: mechanical removal of microbes from the skin and mucous membranes; removal of microbes using natural (tears, digestive juices, vaginal discharge) and pathological (exudate) body fluids; fixation of microbes in tissues and their destruction by phagocytes; destruction of microbes using specific antibodies; release of microbes and their poisons from the body.
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Phagocytosis (from the Greek fago - devour and citos - cell) is the process of absorption and
digestion of microbes and animal cells by various connective tissue cells - phagocytes. The creator of the doctrine of phagocytosis is the great Russian scientist - embryologist, zoologist and pathologist I.I. Mechnikov. He saw phagocytosis as the basis inflammatory reaction, expressing the protective properties of the body. Protective activity of phagocytes during infection I.I. Metchnikoff first demonstrated this using the example of infection of daphnia by a yeast fungus. Subsequently, he convincingly demonstrated the importance of phagocytosis as the main mechanism of immunity in various human infections. He proved the correctness of his theory by studying the phagocytosis of streptococci during erysipelas. In subsequent years, the phagocytotic mechanism of immunity was established for tuberculosis and other infections. This protection is carried out by: - polymorphic neutrophils - short-lived small cells with a large number of granules containing various bactericidal enzymes. They carry out phagocytosis of pus-forming bacteria; - macrophages (differentiated from blood monocytes) are long-lived cells that fight intracellular bacteria, viruses and protozoa. To enhance the process of phagocytosis in the blood plasma, there is a group of proteins that causes the release of inflammatory mediators from mast cells and basophils; cause vasodilation and increases capillary permeability. This group of proteins is called the complement system.
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Questions for self-test: 1. Define the concept of “immunity.” 2. Tell us about the immune system
system, its composition and functions. 3. What are humoral and cellular immunity? 4. How are the types of immunity classified? Name the subtypes of acquired immunity. 5. What are the features of antiviral immunity? 6. Describe the mechanism of immunity to infectious diseases. 7. Give brief description the main provisions of I. I. Mechnikov’s teaching on phagocytosis.
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Text content of presentation slides: Central and peripheral hematopoietic organs and immune defense Author Ananyev N.V. GBPOU DZM "MK No. 1" 20016 Central organ of hematopoiesis - red bone marrow Central organ of immune defense - thymus Peripheral organs Spleen tonsils Lymph nodes Lymphoid follicles Red bone marrow In the embryo, it fills most bones, including tubular ones. In adults, it is found: in flat bones, in the vertebral bodies, in the epiphyses tubular bones. Red bone marrow Reticular tissue Hematopoietic elements Reticular tissue consists of: Cells Intercellular substance Reticular fibers Cells: 1. Reticular cells (fibroblast-like) 2. Macrophages 3. A small number of fat cells Hematopoietic elements - 1. All types of hematopoietic cells located at different levels of differentiation 2. blood stem cells 3. mature blood cells Hematopoietic islets - groups of cells in the bone marrow. Red bone marrow I. ERYTHROPOIETIC ISLANDS: 1 - proerythroblast, 2-4 - erythroblasts: basophilic (2); polychromatophilic (3); oxyphilic (4); 5 - red blood cells. II. GRANULOCYTOPOIETIC ISLANDS (eosinophilic, basophilic, neutrophilic): 6 - promyelocyte, 7A-7B - myelocytes: eosinophilic (7A), basophilic (7B), neutrophilic (7B); 8A-8B - metamyelocytes: eosinophilic (8A) and basophilic (8B); 9 - band granulocyte (neutrophil); 10A-10B - segmented granulocytes: eosinophilic (10A) and neutrophilic (10B). III. Other hematopoietic cells: 11 - megakaryocyte; 12 - cells similar to small lymphocytes (cells of classes I - III and more mature cells of the monocyte and B-lymphocyte series). IV. Other components of red bone marrow: 13 - reticular cells(form stroma); 14 - adipocytes, 15 - macrophages; 16 - perforated sinusoidal capillaries. Features of blood supply - The bone marrow contains sinusoidal capillaries that do not allow immature blood cells to pass from the bone marrow into the blood. Mature cells enter the capillaries and the bloodstream. Functions Hematopoiesis is the formation of all blood cells. Differentiation of B lymphocytes, which then populate peripheral organs Thymus consists of stroma and parenchyma Stroma is loose fibrous connective tissue, which forms outer shell. Partitions extend from it into the gland and divide the gland into lobules. Parenchyma - consists of epithelial and lymphocytic structures. The thymus lobule has 3 parts: Subcapsular zone Cortical substance Medullary substance The thymic lobule has 3 parts Subcapsular zone Consists of branched epithelial cells that are connected to each other using processes. Functions: participation in the differentiation and maturation of T-lymphocytes under the control of thymic hormones: thymosin, thymopoietin Cortical substance Formed by precursor cells of T-lymphocytes and T-lymphocytes located at different levels of differentiation and macrophages. The cortex is darker than the medulla. Functions: differentiation of T-lymphocytes. The medulla is formed by T-lymphocytes and macrophages and thymic bodies - a layer of epithelial cells that have lost their oval-shaped processes. But there are significantly fewer of them than in the cortex, so it looks lighter when stained. Functions: unknown, perhaps some stages of differentiation of T-lymphocytes Features of blood supply: 1. The cortex and medulla are supplied with blood separately2. Blood from the cortex, without entering the medulla, immediately flows out of the thymus3. In the cortex there is a hematothymic barrier - a barrier between the parenchyma of the thymus and the blood of the capillaries of the cortex. The hematothymic barrier delays the flow of high-molecular substances from the capillaries into the thymus and allows thymocytes to differentiate in the absence of contact with foreign antigens. Involution of the thymus The thymus reaches its maximum development in childhood when the body’s immune system is intensively formed. IN old age its age-related involution occurs - a decrease in size and a decrease in functions. Under the influence of stress due to the effects of glucocorticoids (adrenal hormones), rapid involution occurs. Thymus cells die by apoptosis, the thymus shrinks, and its parenchyma is replaced by adipose tissue. Spleen The spleen consists of stroma and parenchyma. Stroma is loose fibrous connective tissue that forms the outer shell. Partitions - trabeculae - extend from it into the gland. Parenchyma - consists of pulp: red and white. The white pulp consists of lymphoid nodules. Lymphoid nodules of the spleen have a diameter of 0.3-0.5 mm. In the center of the nodule is an arteriole. The basis of the nodule is formed by reticular tissue, in the loops of which lymphocytes lie. There are 2 zones in the nodule: B-zone - the largest part, responsible for the differentiation of B-lymphocytes. T-zone - the smaller part - reproduction and differentiation of T-lymphocytes. Nodules have 3 stages of development: 1. Initial 2. Without a light center 3. With a light center - an indicator of high functional activity. Formed during antigenic stimulation. Lymph node with a light center It has 3 zones: 1. Reproduction center 2. Periarterial zone 3. Mantle or marginal layer Reproduction center Here are B-lymphocytes and their antigen-dependent differentiation occurs Periarterial zone Here are T-lymphocytes and their antigen-dependent differentiation occurs Mantle layer Here the interaction between T and B lymphocytes occurs, which is necessary for their differentiation. Red pulp Occupies most of the spleen. Consists of sinusoidal capillaries containing blood and reticular tissue. Functions of the spleen White pulp - antigen dependent differentiation of T and B lymphocytes. Red pulp – Death of old red blood cells. Death of old platelets. Blood depot – up to 1 liter. Final stages lymphocyte differentiation. Blood supply to the spleen Splenic artery – trabecular arteries – pulp arteries – central arteries (inside the nodule) – brush arteries (have sphincters) – ellipsoid arterioles – hemocapillaries. Blood supply to the spleen A minority of the hemocapillaries opens into the red pulp, the majority passes into the venous sinuses. A sinus is a cavity filled with blood. From the sinuses, blood can flow into the red pulp or into the venous capillaries. Blood supply to the spleen The venous sphincters contract - blood accumulates in the sinuses, they stretch. The arterial sphincters contract - blood cells pass through the pores in the walls of the sinuses into the red pulp. All sphincters are relaxed - blood from the sinuses flows into the veins, they empty. Blood supply to the spleen From the sinus, blood enters the pulp veins - trabecular veins - splenic vein - hepatic portal vein (portal). The lymph nodes
“The body’s immune system” - Nonspecific protective factors. Immunity. Specific mechanisms of immunity. Factors. Specific immunity. Thymus. Critical period. Protective barrier. Antigen. Morbidity of the child population. A trace in the history of mankind. Infection. Central lymphoid organs. Increasing the child's body's defenses. National calendar preventive vaccinations. Vaccine prevention. Serums. Artificial immunity.
“Immune system” - Factors that weaken the immune system. Two main factors that have a major impact on the effectiveness of the immune system: 1. A person’s lifestyle 2. Environment. Express diagnostics of the effectiveness of the immune system. Alcohol contributes to the formation of an immunodeficiency state: taking two glasses of alcohol reduces immunity to 1/3 of the level for several days. Carbonated drinks reduce the effectiveness of the immune system.
“Internal environment of the human body” - Composition of the internal environment of the body. Blood cells. Human circulatory system. Protein. Liquid part of blood. Shaped elements. Colorless liquid. Name it in one word. Cells of the circulatory system. Hollow muscular organ. Name of cells. Movement of lymph. Hematopoietic organ. Blood plates. Internal environment of the body. Red blood cells. Intellectual warm-up. Liquid connective tissue. Complete the logical chain.
“History of Anatomy” - History of the development of anatomy, physiology and medicine. William Harvey. Burdenko Nikolai Nilovich. Pirogov Nikolai Ivanovich. Luigi Galvani. Pasteur. Aristotle. Mechnikov Ilya Ilyich. Botkin Sergey Petrovich. Paracelsus. Ukhtomsky Alexey Alekseevich. Ibn Sina. Claudius Galen. Li Shi-Zhen. Andreas Vesalius. Louis Pasteur. Hippocrates. Sechenov Ivan Mikhailovich. Pavlov Ivan Petrovich.
“Elements in the human body” - I find friends everywhere: In minerals and in water, Without me you are like without hands, Without me, the fire has gone out! (Oxygen). And if you destroy it right away, you will get two gas. (Water). Although my composition is complex, it is impossible to live without me, I am an excellent solvent of Thirst for the best intoxicator! Water. Content of “life metals” in the human body. Content of organogenic elements in the human body. The role of nutrients in the human body.
"Immunity" - Classes of immunoglobulins. Helper T cell activation. Cytokines. Humoral immunity. Origin of cells. The mechanism of genetic control of the immune response. Immunoglobulin E. Immunoglobulin molecule. Elements of the immune system. Structure of the main loci. Immunoglobulin A. Foreign elements. The structure of antibodies. Genetic basis of immunity. Structure of the antigen-binding site. Secretion of antibodies.
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What is the immune system?
The immune system is a collection of organs, tissues and cells, the work of which is aimed directly at protecting the body from various diseases and to destroy foreign substances that have already entered the body. This system is an obstacle to infections (bacterial, viral, fungal). When the immune system malfunctions, the likelihood of developing infections increases, which also leads to the development autoimmune diseases, including multiple sclerosis.
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Organs included in the human immune system: lymph glands (nodes), tonsils, thymus gland (thymus), bone marrow, spleen and lymphoid formations of the intestine (Peyer's patches). Plays the main role a complex system circulation, which consists of lymphatic ducts connecting the lymph nodes.
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The organs of the immune system produce immunocompetent cells (lymphocytes, plasma cells), biologically active substances (antibodies) that recognize and destroy, neutralize cells and other foreign substances (antigens) that have entered the body or formed in it. The immune system includes all organs that are built from reticular stroma and lymphoid tissue and carry out the body’s protective reactions, create immunity, and immunity to substances that have foreign antigenic properties.
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Peripheral organs of the immune system
They are located in places of possible penetration of foreign substances into the body or along the paths of their movement in the body itself. 1. lymph nodes; 2. spleen; 3. lymphoepithelial formations of the digestive tract (tonsils, single and group lymphatic follicles); 4. perivascular lymphatic follicles
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The lymph nodes
Peripheral organ lymphatic system, performing the function of a biological filter through which lymph flows, coming from organs and parts of the body. In the human body there are many groups of lymph nodes, called regional. They are located along the path of lymph through the lymphatic vessels from organs and tissues to the lymphatic ducts. They are located in well-protected places and in the joint area.
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Tonsils
Tonsils: lingual and pharyngeal (unpaired), palatine and tubal (paired), located in the area of the root of the tongue, nasal pharynx and pharynx. The tonsils form a kind of ring surrounding the entrance to the nasopharynx and oropharynx. The tonsils are built from diffuse lymphoid tissue, which contains numerous lymphoid nodules.
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Lingual tonsil (tonsillalingualis)
Unpaired, located under the epithelium of the mucous membrane of the root of the tongue. The surface of the tongue root above the tonsil is lumpy. These tubercles correspond to the underlying epithelium and lymphoid nodules. Between the tubercles, openings of large depressions open - crypts, into which the ducts of the mucous glands flow.
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Pharyngeal tonsil (tonsillapharyngealis)
Unpaired, located in the area of the arch and back wall pharynx, between the right and left pharyngeal pouches. In this place there are transversely and obliquely oriented thick folds of the mucous membrane, inside of which there is lymphoid tissue of the pharyngeal tonsil and lymphoid nodules. Most lymphoid nodules have a proliferation center.
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Palatine tonsil (tonsillapalatina)
The steam room is located in the tonsillar fossa, between the palatoglossus arch in front and the velopharyngeal arch in the back. The medial surface of the tonsil, covered with stratified squamous epithelium, faces the pharynx. The lateral side of the tonsil is adjacent to the wall of the pharynx. In the thickness of the tonsil, along its crypts, there are numerous round-shaped lymphoid nodules, mainly with reproduction centers. There is diffuse lymphoid tissue around the lymphoid nodules.
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Palatine tonsil in a frontal section. Palatine tonsil. Lymphoid nodules near the tonsil crypt.
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Tubal tonsil (tonsillatubaria)
Steam room, located in the area of the pharyngeal opening auditory tube, in the thickness of its mucous membrane. Consists of diffuse lymphoid tissue and a few lymphoid nodules.
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Vermiform appendix (appendix vermiformis)
It is located near the ileo-cecal junction, at the lower part of the cecum. In its walls it has numerous lymphoid nodules and internodular lymphoid tissue between them. There are group lymphatic follicles (Peyer's patches) - accumulations of lymphoid tissue located in the walls small intestine in the terminal ileum.
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Lymphoid plaques look like flat oval or round formations. Slightly protruding into the intestinal lumen. The surface of lymphoid plaques is uneven and lumpy. They are located on the side opposite to the mesenteric edge of the intestine. Constructed from lymphoid nodules tightly adjacent to each other. The number of which in one plaque varies from 5-10 to 100-150 or more.
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Solitary lymphoid
Available in the mucous membrane and submucosa of all tubular organs of the digestive system, respiratory systems And genitourinary apparatus. Lymphoid nodules are located at different distances from each other and at different depths. Often the nodules lie so close to the epithelial cover that the mucous membrane above them rises in the form of small mounds. In the small intestine in childhood, the number of nodules varies from 1200 to 11000, in the large intestine - from 2000 to 9000, in the walls of the trachea - from 100 to 180, in Bladder- from 80 to 530. Diffuse lymphoid tissue is also present in the mucous membrane of all organs of the digestive, respiratory systems and genitourinary apparatus.
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Spleen (lien, splen)
Performs the functions of immune control of blood. Located on the path of blood flow from the aorta to the system portal vein, branching in the liver. The spleen is located in abdominal cavity. The weight of the spleen in an adult is 153-192 g.
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The spleen has the shape of a flattened and elongated hemisphere. The spleen has diaphragmatic and visceral surfaces. The convex diaphragmatic surface faces the diaphragm. The visceral surface is not smooth; it contains the gate of the spleen, through which the artery and nerves enter the organ and the vein exits. The spleen is covered on all sides by peritoneum. Between the visceral surface of the spleen on one side, the stomach and the diaphragm on the other, the layers of the peritoneum and its ligaments are stretched - the gastrosplenic ligament, the phrenic-splenic ligament.
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From the fibrous membrane, located under the serous cover, the connective tissue trabeculae of the spleen extend into the organ. Between the trabeculae there is parenchyma, the pulp (pulp) of the spleen. The red pulp is isolated, located between the venous vessels - the sinuses of the spleen. The red pulp consists of loops of reticular tissue filled with red blood cells, leukocytes, lymphocytes, and macrophages. The white pulp is formed by periarterial lymphoid couplings, lymphoid nodules and macrophage-lymphoid couplings, consisting of lymphocytes and other cells of lymphoid tissue located in loops of the reticular stroma.
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Periarterial lymphoid couplings
In the form of 2-4 layers of cells of the lymphoid series, they surround the pulpal arteries, starting from the place where they exit the trabeculae and up to the ellipsoids. Lymphoid nodules form in the thickness of the periarterial lymphoid couplings. The muffs contain reticular cells and fibers, macrophages and lymphocytes. When leaving the macrophage-lymphoid couplings, the ellipsoidal arterioles divide into terminal capillaries, which flow into the venous splenic sinuses located in the red pulp. Areas of red pulp are called splenic cords. Pulp and then trabecular veins form from the splenic sinuses.
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The lymph nodes
Lymph nodes (nodilymphatici) are the most numerous organs of the immune system, lying on the paths of lymph flow from organs and tissues to the lymphatic ducts and lymphatic trunks, which flow into the bloodstream in the lower parts of the neck. Lymph nodes are biological filters for tissue fluid and the metabolic products contained in it (particles of cells that died as a result of cellular renewal, and other possible foreign substances of endogenous and exogenous origin). Lymph flowing through the sinuses of the lymph nodes is filtered through loops of reticular tissue. The lymph receives lymphocytes formed in the lymphoid tissue of these lymph nodes.
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Lymph nodes are usually located in groups of two or more nodes. Sometimes the number of nodes in a group reaches several dozen. Groups of lymph nodes are named accordingly to the areas of their location: inguinal, lumbar, cervical, axillary. Lymph nodes adjacent to the walls of cavities are called parietal, parietal lymph nodes (nodilymphatici parietals). Nodes that are located near internal organs, are called visceral lymph nodes (nodilymphaticiviscerales). There are superficial lymph nodes, located under the skin, above the superficial fascia, and deep lymph nodes, lying deeper under the fascia, usually near large arteries and veins. The shape of the lymph nodes is very different.
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On the outside, each lymph node is covered with a connective tissue capsule, from which thin capsular trabeculae extend into the organ. At the site where the lymphatic vessels exit the lymph node, there is a small depression - the gate, in the area of which the capsule thickens, forms a portal thickening, and portal trabeculae extend into the node. The longest of them are connected to capsular trabeculae. An artery and nerves enter the lymph node through the gate. Nerves and efferent nerves emerge from the node lymphatic vessels. Inside the lymph node, between its trabeculae, there are reticular fibers and reticular cells, forming a three-dimensional network with loops of different sizes and shapes. The loop contains the cellular elements of lymphoid tissue. The parenchyma of the lymph node is divided into cortex and medulla. The cortex is darker and occupies peripheral parts node. The lighter medulla lies closer to the gate of the lymph node.
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Around the lymphoid nodules there is diffuse lymphoid tissue, in which an internodular zone is distinguished - the cortical plateau. Inward from the lymphoid nodules, at the border with the medulla, there is a strip of lymphoid tissue called the pericortical substance. This zone contains T-lymphocytes, as well as post-capillary venules lined with cubic endothelium. Through the walls of these venules, lymphocytes migrate into the bloodstream from the parenchyma of the lymph node and in the opposite direction. The medulla is formed by cords of lymphoid tissue - pulpy cords, which extend from the internal parts of the cortex to the gate of the lymph node. Together with the lymphoid nodules, the pulp cords form the B-dependent zone. The parenchyma of the lymph node is penetrated by a dense network of narrow slits - lymphatic sinuses, through which the lymph entering the node flows from the subcapsular sinus to the portal sinus. Along the capsular trabeculae lie the sinuses of the cortex, along the pulpy cords there are the sinuses of the medulla, which reach the portal of the lymph node. Near the portal thickening, the sinuses of the medulla flow into the portal sinus located here. In the lumen of the sinuses there is a soft-cell network formed by reticular fibers and cells. As lymph passes through the sinus system, the loops of this network trap foreign particles that enter the lymphatic vessels from the tissues. Lymphocytes enter the lymph from the parenchyma of the lymph node.
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The structure of the lymph node
Network of reticular fibers, lymphocytes and macrophages in the sinus of the lymph node
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Lecture plan PURPOSE: to teach students an understanding of the structural and functional organization of the immune system,
features of innate and adaptive
immunity.
1. The concept of immunology as a subject, basic
stages of its development.
2. .
3 Types of immunity: features of innate and
adaptive immunity.
4. Characteristics of cells involved in reactions
innate and adaptive immunity.
5. Structure of central and peripheral organs
immune system functions.
6. Lymphoid tissue: structure, function.
7. GSK.
8. Lymphocyte – structural and functional unit
immune system.
Cell population – cell types with the most
general properties
Subpopulation of cells - more specialized
homogeneous cells
Cytokines – soluble peptide mediators
immune system, necessary for its development,
functioning and interaction with others
systems of the body.
Immunocompetent cells (ICC) - cells
ensuring the performance of immune functions
systems
Immunology
- the science of immunity, whichstudies structure and function
body immune system
person as under normal conditions,
as well as in pathological
states.
Immunology studies:
The structure of the immune system and mechanismsdevelopment immune reactions
Diseases of the immune system and its dysfunction
Conditions and patterns of development
immunopathological reactions and methods for them
corrections
Possibility of using reserves and
mechanisms of the immune system in the fight against
infectious, oncological, etc.
diseases
Immunological problems of transplantation
organs and tissues, reproduction
Main stages in the development of immunology
Pasteur L. (1886) - vaccines (prevention of infectious diseasesdiseases)
Bering E., Ehrlich P. (1890) - laid the foundation for humoral
immunity (discovery of antibodies)
Mechnikov I.I. (1901-1908) - theory of phagocytosis
Bordet J. (1899) – discovery of the complement system
Richet S., Portier P. (1902) - discovery of anaphylaxis
Pirke K. (1906) – the doctrine of allergies
Landsteiner K. (1926) – discovery of blood groups AB0 and Rh factor
Medovar (1940-1945) - the doctrine of immunological tolerance
Dosse J., Snell D. (1948) - laid the foundations of immunogenetics
Miller D., Klaman G., Davis, Royt (1960) - the doctrine of T- and B
immune systems
Dumond (1968-1969) – discovery of lymphokines
Koehler, Milstein (1975) - method for obtaining monoclonal
antibodies (hybridomas)
1980-2010 – development of diagnostic and treatment methods
immunopathology
Immunity
- a way to protect the body from living bodies andsubstances that carry genetic characteristics
foreign information (including
microorganisms, foreign cells,
tissue or genetically altered
own cells, including tumor cells)
Types of immunity
Innate immunity is hereditaryfixed defense system of multicellular organisms
organisms from pathogenic and non-pathogenic
microorganisms, as well as endogenous products
tissue destruction.
Acquired (adaptive) immunity is formed throughout life under the influence of
antigenic stimulation.
Innate and acquired immunity are
two interacting parts of the immune system
systems that ensure the development of the immune system
response to genetically foreign substances. Systemic immunity – at the level
the whole body
Local immunity -
additional level of protection
barrier fabrics ( skin And
mucous membranes)
Functional organization of the immune system
Innate immunity:- stereotyping
- non-specificity
(regulated by the pituitary-adrenal system)
Mechanisms:
anatomical and physiological barriers (skin,
mucous membranes)
humoral components (lysozyme, complement, INFα
and β, acute phase proteins, cytokines)
cellular factors (phagocytes, NK cells, platelets,
red blood cells, mast cells, endothelial cells)
Functional organization of the immune system
Acquired immunity:specificity
formation of immunological
memory during the immune response
Mechanisms:
humoral factors - immunoglobulins
(antibodies)
cellular factors – mature T-, B-lymphocytes
The immune system
- a set of specialized bodies,tissues and cells located in
different parts of the body, but
functioning as a single whole.
Peculiarities:
generalized throughout the body
constant recycling of lymphocytes
specificity
Physiological significance of the immune system
securityimmunological
individuality throughout life
immune recognition account with
involving components of congenital and
acquired immunity. antigenic
nature
endogenously arising
(cells,
changed
viruses,
xenobiotics,
tumor cells and
etc.)
or
exogenously
penetrating
V
organism
Properties of the immune system
Specificity - “one AG – one AT – one clonelymphocytes"
High degree of sensitivity - recognition
AG by immunocompetent cells (ICC) at the level
individual molecules
Immunological individuality “specificity of the immune response” - for everyone
the organism has its own characteristic, genetically
controlled type of immune response
Clonal principle of organization - ability
all cells within a single clone respond
only for one antigen
Immunological memory is the ability of the immune system
systems (memory cells) respond quickly and
intensively for re-entry of antigen
Properties of the immune system
Tolerance is a specific unresponsiveness tobody's own antigens
The ability to regenerate is a property of the immune system
systems to maintain lymphocyte homeostasis due to
replenishment of the pool and control of the population of memory cells
The phenomenon of “double recognition” of antigen by T lymphocytes - the ability to recognize foreign
antigens only in association with MHC molecules
Regulatory effect on other body systems
Structural and functional organization of the immune system
Structure of the immune system
Organs:central (thymus, red bone marrow)
peripheral (spleen, lymph nodes, liver,
lymphoid accumulations in different organs)
Cells:
lymphocytes, leukocytes (mon/mf, nf, ef, bf, dk),
mast cells, vascular endothelium, epithelium
Humoral factors:
antibodies, cytokines
ICC circulation pathways:
peripheral blood, lymph
Immune system organs
Features of the central organs of the immune system
Located in areas of the bodyprotected from external influences
(bone marrow - in the bone marrow cavities,
thymus in the chest cavity)
The bone marrow and thymus are the site
lymphocyte differentiation
IN central authorities immune system
lymphoid tissue is in a peculiar
microenvironment (in the bone marrow -
myeloid tissue, in the thymus - epithelial)
Features of peripheral organs of the immune system
Located on the paths of the possibleintroduction of foreign substances into the body
antigens
Consistently increasing their complexity
buildings depending on size and
duration of antigenic
impact.
Bone marrow
Functions:hematopoiesis of all types of blood cells
antigen-independent
differentiation and maturation B
- lymphocytes
Hematopoiesis scheme
Types of stem cells
1. Hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) –located in the bone marrow
2. Mesenchymal (stromal) stems
cells (MSCs) – a population of pluripotent
bone marrow cells capable of
differentiation into osteogenic, chondrogenic,
adipogenic, myogenic and other cell lines.
3. Tissue-specific progenitor cells
(progenitor cells) –
poorly differentiated cells
located in various tissues and organs,
are responsible for updating the cell population.
Hematopoietic stem cell (HSC)
Stages of development of GSKMultipotent stem cell– proliferates and
differentiates into parent stems
cells for myelo- and lymphopoiesis
Progenitor stem cell - limited in
self-maintenance, intensively proliferates and
differentiates in 2 directions (lymphoid
and myeloid)
Progenitor cell - differentiates
into only one type of cell (lymphocytes,
neutrophils, monocytes, etc.)
Mature cells - T-, B-lymphocytes, monocytes, etc.
Features of GSK
(the main marker of HSC is CD 34)Poor differentiation
Self-sustaining ability
Moving through the bloodstream
Repopulation of hemo- and immunopoiesis after
radiation exposure or
chemotherapy
Thymus
Consists of lobulesmedulla.
each has a cortical
And
The parenchyma is represented by epithelial cells,
containing a secretory granule that secretes
“thymic hormonal factors.”
The medulla contains mature thymocytes, which
turn on
V
recycling
And
populate
peripheral organs of the immune system.
Functions:
maturation of thymocytes into mature T cells
secretion of thymic hormones
regulation of T cell function in others
lymphoid organs through
thymic hormones
Lymphoid tissue
- specialized fabric that providesconcentration of antigens, contact of cells with
antigens, transport of humoral substances.
Encapsulated – lymphoid organs
(thymus, spleen, lymph nodes, liver)
Unencapsulated – lymphoid tissue
mucous membranes, associated with the gastrointestinal tract,
respiratory and genitourinary system
Lymphoid subsystem of the skin -
disseminated intraepithelial
lymphocytes, regional lymph nodes, vessels
lymphatic drainage
Lymphocytes are the structural and functional unit of the immune system
specificcontinuously generate
diversity of clones (1018 variants in T-
lymphocytes and 1016 variants in B-lymphocytes)
recirculation (between blood and lymph in
on average about 21 hours)
renewal of lymphocytes (at a speed of 106
cells per minute); among peripheral lymphocytes
blood 80% long-lived memory lymphocytes, 20%
naive lymphocytes formed in the bone marrow
and have not had contact with the antigen)
Literature:
1. Khaitov R.M. Immunology: textbook. Forstudents of medical universities. - M.: GEOTAR-Media,
2011.- 311 p.
2. Khaitov R.M. Immunology. Norm and
pathology: textbook. for students of medical universities and
Univ.- M.: Medicine, 2010.- 750 p.
3. Immunology: textbook / A.A. Yarilin.- M.:
GEOTAR-Media, 2010.- 752 p.
4. Kovalchuk L.V. Clinical immunology
and allergology with the basics of general
Immunology: textbook. – M.: GEOTARMEDIA, 2011.- 640 p.
