160.Describe the shape, size and structural features of the stomach.
The stomach is a pouch-like extension of the digestive tract located between the esophagus and duodenum.
The size of the stomach varies depending on the body type and degree of filling. On average, the stomach of an adult is up to 25 cm long, and its volume ranges from 1.5 liters to 4 liters.
Gastric juice secreted by the glands of the stomach contains digestive enzymes, hydrochloric acid and other substances that break down food that enters it.

161. What is the composition of gastric juice? Why does gastric juice not damage the walls of the stomach?
Gastric juice is a colorless liquid that contains water, hydrochloric acid, enzymes and mucus. Gastric juice does not damage the walls of the stomach due to the mucus produced, which abundantly covers the walls of the stomach, creating a protective barrier.

162. What happens to food in the duodenum?
In this section, food is exposed to pancreatic juice, bile and intestinal juice. Their enzymes act on proteins, fats and carbohydrates.

163. What is the role of the liver in the human body?
The liver is a vital organ that performs various functions:
1) Neutralization of allergens, poisons and toxins.
2) Neutralization and removal from the body of excess hormones, vitamins, and metabolic end products (ammonia, ethanol, acetone).
3) Participation in the digestion process, providing the body with glucose, converting various energy sources into glucose.

164. Describe the functions of bile in digestion.
Bile breaks down fats and promotes the absorption of fatty acids.

165. Complete the sentence.
The digestive process in the small intestine consists of three stages: cavity digestion, parietal digestion and absorption.

166. What processes occur in the large intestine?
Undigested food remains accumulate in the large intestine, feces are formed and water is absorbed.

167. Write down the definition.
Absorption is the process of transferring substances from the gastrointestinal tract into the internal environment of the body (blood, lymph, tissue fluid).

168. Look at the drawing. Sign it. Describe how the absorption process occurs.

Determine which breakdown products are indicated by the following symbols: squares and triangles - glucose and amino acids, circles - fatty acids and glycerol.

169. Do practical work. Carefully observe the teacher's actions while performing the demonstration experiment.
1. Chicken protein flakes are placed in two test tubes.
2. Add water to one test tube.
3. Add 1 ml of gastric juice to another test tube.
4. Both test tubes are placed on water bath at a temperature of +37°C.
5. After 30 minutes, compare the contents of the tubes.
6. Draw conclusions. What changes occurred to the protein in the test tube with gastric juice? Why did these changes happen? Why is protein in
test tube with water remained unchanged? Why did the teacher heat the test tubes?
In a test tube with gastric juice, the protein flakes practically dissolved. This happened under the influence of digestive enzymes and hydrochloric acid contained in gastric juice. In a test tube with water, the protein remained unchanged, because water contains neither enzymes nor hydrochloric acid. The tubes were heated to create a temperature as similar as possible to the temperature in the stomach.

Digestion in the stomach

Food entering the stomach undergoes significant chemical transformations for the first time under the influence of gastric juice. Depending on the quality, the food remains in the stomach for several hours; here it is thoroughly mixed and soaked in gastric juice; its constituent parts, especially protein substances, undergo breakdown, after which the gastric contents are gradually evacuated through the pylorus into duodenum.

Rice. 9.

The structure of the stomach. The stomach is a part of the digestive tube expanded into a bag.

The average stomach capacity of an adult is approximately 2 liters; in individuals who consume a lot of liquid, it can reach up to 5-10 liters.

The wall of the stomach consists of three membranes: mucous, muscular and serous. The mucous membrane, or inner lining, is lined with a single-layer, mucus-secreting epithelium and contains numerous tubular-shaped glands that open at the bottom of the gastric pits. In the glands of the body of the stomach (lesser curvature, fundus) there are main, lining and accessory cells. The main cubic-shaped cells serve to produce the enzyme, the rounded parietal cells produce hydrochloric acid, and the accessory cells produce mucus. In the stomach of an adult there are up to 25,000,000 glandular cells. The mucous membrane of the empty stomach is collected in folds, which straighten when it is filled with food mass.

The muscular, or middle, lining of the stomach consists of three differently directed layers of muscle fibers: longitudinal, circular and internal oblique. Thanks to this arrangement of fibers, the stomach can change its size and shape in all directions during contractions. This circumstance ensures thorough mixing of food masses in the stomach.

Digestion in the small intestine

From the stomach, the food mass enters the duodenum, where it undergoes chemical exposure digestive juices of the pancreas, liver and intestines.

Outside the digestive period, the contents of the duodenum have a slightly alkaline reaction: pH ranges from 7.2 to 8.0. The juice has a thick consistency and is alkaline. It contains a large amount of mucus, as well as an enzyme (peptidase), which has a digestive effect on proteins. The juice has some effect on fats and starch, in addition, it activates the pancreatic enzyme. However, its digestive properties themselves play a very limited role in the digestive process.

Rice. eleven

The upper part of the duodenum plays important role in the mechanism of regulation of secretory and motor activity the digestive apparatus, since hormones are formed in its mucous membrane: secretin, which stimulates the secretion of pancreatic juice and bile; cholecystokinin, which stimulates the motility of the gallbladder and inhibits the activity of the obturator mechanism of the common bile duct; villikinin, which stimulates villous motility small intestine(Fig. 11,12); enterogastron, which inhibits the secretory function of the gastric glands; “intestinal substance” that stimulates intestinal motility, etc. In addition, this part of the intestine represents a powerful receptor field, irritation of which causes a number of physiological reactions from the stomach, pancreas, liver and its biliary apparatus, as well as the respiratory, cardiovascular vascular and hematopoietic systems. All this increases the importance of digestion. It is further enhanced by the fact that juice, which has high digestive activity, is poured into the cavity of this section of the intestine. secretory cells pancreas, as well as bile - liver cells.

Exocrine function of the pancreas. The pancreas (pancreas) is a large digestive gland with exocrine and intrasecretory functions. It is an unpaired organ and its structure resembles salivary glands. The pancreas is divided into a head, body and tail. Thickened right part pancreas is located in the loop of the duodenum, narrowed left side- tail - in contact with the spleen. The body of the gland has the shape of a triangular prism, covered in front by peritoneum. The outside of the iron is covered with compacted connective tissue, from which partitions extend inward, dividing it into separate lobes and segments. Each lobule has an excretory duct, which flows into a larger interlobular duct. The interlobular ducts unite to form the main excretory duct, which opens into the duodenum.

The secretory cells of the gland have triangular, cylindrical and round shapes, with a spherical nucleus located in the center. In addition, scattered throughout the gland are special formations of special cells - the islets of Langerhans, which are related to the intrasecretory activity of the gland. The secretion of these cells (insulin) enters directly into the blood.

Fig.13 Pancreas: 1 -- artery of the gastroduodenal intestine; 2 - right celiac nerve: 3 - hepatic artery; 4 -- right vagus; 5 -- left vagus; 5 --left gastric artery; 7 -- left celiac nerve; 8- splenic artery; 9 -- internal pancreatoduodenal artery; 10 -- superior mesenteric artery

The total secretory surface of the gland is 11 m2; in an hour it is capable of releasing up to 50 ml of juice.

Composition and properties of pancreatic juice. Pure pancreatic juice is a colorless, transparent liquid of an alkaline reaction, odorless, consisting of inorganic and organic matter. From inorganic substances great importance has sodium bicarbonate, the presence of which determines the alkalinity of the juice. Of the organic ones, the bulk consists of proteins. The content of organic matter ranges from 0.5 to 8%; The pH of pancreatic juice ranges from 8.71 to 8.98. In humans, the daily amount of juice reaches 600-850 ml (according to some authors, 1500-2000 ml).

The composition of pancreatic juice includes proteases, lipases, amylase, nuclease and other enzymes. Amylase, lipase, and nuclease are secreted in an active state; proteases are secreted in the form of zymogens; to become active, they require the action of other enzymes.

Exocrine function of the liver. The liver is a large gland of the animal body, participating in the processes of digestion, metabolism, blood circulation and carrying out specific protective and neutralizing enzymatic and excretory functions aimed at maintaining constancy internal environment body. In an adult, its mass reaches 1.5-2 kg. The liver produces a digestive secretion - bile. The process of bile formation is referred to as bile secretion, bile formation, or bile secretion, and the release of bile into the intestine is called bile excretion. Bile formation and bile excretion are closely related processes.

Rice. 14

The structure of the liver and biliary apparatus. The liver is a complex tubular gland, consisting of two lobes, of which the right one is much larger than the left (Fig. 14). Under the serous membrane there is a connective tissue capsule containing elastic fibers. The capsule, together with blood vessels, penetrates into the liver, dividing it into hepatic lobules. In the middle of each lobule there is central vein, from which the liver cells are located in a radius in the form of crossbars, between which bile capillaries are formed. Thus, liver cells are located between the branches blood vessels and bile capillaries (Fig. 15).

Fig.15

1 -- liver cells; 2 -- bile ducts; 3 and 5 -- Kupffer's stellate cells; 4 -- lymphatic spaces, 6 -- blood capillaries

The bile formed in the liver cells gradually moves to the periphery of the lobule, where it first enters the interlobular and then the excretory hepatic ducts, which together with the cystic duct form the common bile duct. In humans, the common bile duct opens into the cavity of the duodenum, usually next to excretory duct pancreas.

Outside the period of digestion, bile from the hepatic ducts through the cystic duct enters the gallbladder; with the onset of digestion, it is evacuated into the intestine through the cystic and common bile ducts.

In humans, the gallbladder - a thin-walled pear-shaped sac - holds up to 60 ml of bile; its length is 12-18 cm; it distinguishes between the bottom, body and neck. Its wall consists of mucous, muscular and serous membranes.

The stomach is one of the main life support organs of the human body. In the process of digestion, it occupies an intermediate position between the oral cavity, where food processing begins, and the intestines, where it ends. Digestion in the stomach consists of the deposition of incoming products, their mechanical and chemical treatment and evacuation into the intestines for further, deeper processing and absorption.

In the stomach cavity, consumed products swell and turn into a semi-liquid state. The individual components dissolve and then hydrolyze under the action of gastric enzymes. In addition, gastric juice has pronounced bactericidal properties.

Structure of the stomach

The stomach is a hollow muscular organ. Average dimensions for an adult: length - about 20 cm, volume - 0.5 liters.

The stomach is conventionally divided into three sections:

1. Cardiac - the upper, initial section, connected to the esophagus and the first to receive food.
2. The body and fundus of the stomach are where the main secretory and digestive processes take place.
3. The pyloric is the lower section, through which the partially processed food mass is evacuated into the duodenum.

The lining or wall of the stomach has a three-layer structure:

• The serous membrane covers the organ from the outside and has a protective function.
• The middle layer is muscular, formed by three layers of smooth muscle. The fibers of each individual group have a different direction. This ensures effective mixing and movement of food through the stomach, then its evacuation into the lumen of the duodenum.
• The inside of the organ is lined with mucous membrane, secretory glands which produces components of digestive juice.

Stomach functions

The digestive functions of the stomach include:

• accumulation of food and its preservation for several hours during the period of digestion (deposition);
• mechanical grinding and mixing of incoming food with digestive secretions;
• chemical processing of proteins, fats, carbohydrates;
• advancement (evacuation) of food mass into the intestines.

Secretory function

The chemical processing of incoming food is ensured by the secretory function of the organ. This is possible due to the activity of the glands, which are located on the inner mucous membrane of the organ. The mucous membrane has a folded structure, with many pits and tubercles, its surface is rough, covered with many villi, different shapes and sizes. These villi are the digestive glands.

Majority secretory glands have the form of cylinders with external ducts through which the products they produce biological fluids enter the stomach cavity. There are several types of such glands:

1. Fundal. The main and most numerous formations occupy most of the area of ​​the body and fundus of the stomach. Their structure is complex. The glands are formed by three types of secretory cells:

• the main ones are responsible for the production of pepsinogen;
• lining or parietal, their task is the production of hydrochloric acid;
• additional – produce mucoid secretion.

1. Cardiac glands. The cells of these glands produce mucus. The formations are located in the upper, cardiac section of the stomach, in the place that first encounters food coming from the esophagus. They produce mucus, which facilitates the sliding of food through the stomach and, by covering the surface of the mucous membrane of the organ with a thin layer, performs a protective function.
2. Pyloric glands. They produce a small amount of mucous secretion with a weak alkaline reaction, partially neutralizes the acidic environment of gastric juice before evacuating the food mass into the intestinal lumen. Parietal cells in the glands of the pyloric region are present in small quantities and take almost no part in the digestion process.

The secretion of the fundic glands plays a major role in the digestive function of the stomach.

Gastric juice

Biologically active liquid substance. It has an acidic reaction (pH 1.0-2.5), consists almost entirely of water, and only about 0.5% contains hydrochloric acid and dense inclusions.

• The juice contains a group of enzymes for the breakdown of proteins - pepsins, chymosin.
• And also a small amount of lipase, which is active against fats.

The human body produces from 1.5 to 2 liters of gastric juice during the day.

Properties of hydrochloric acid

In the digestive process, hydrochloric acid acts simultaneously in several directions:

• denatures proteins;
• activates inert pepsinogen into the biologically active enzyme pepsin;
• maintains an optimal level of acidity to activate the enzymatic properties of pepsins;
• performs a protective function;
• regulates motor activity stomach;
• stimulates the production of enterokinase.

Gastric enzymes

Pepsins. The chief cells of the stomach synthesize several types of pepsinogens. The action of an acidic environment splits off polypeptides from their molecules, resulting in the formation of peptides that exhibit the greatest activity in the hydrolysis reaction of protein molecules at pH 1.5-2.0. Gastric peptides are capable of destroying a tenth of peptide bonds.

For the activation and operation of pepsin produced by the pyloric glands, an acidic environment with lower values ​​or even a neutral one is sufficient.

Chymosin. Like pepsins, it belongs to the class of proteases. Curds milk proteins. Casein protein, under the influence of chymosin, is converted into a dense precipitate of calcium salt. The enzyme is active at any acidity of the environment from slightly acidic to alkaline.

Lipase. This enzyme has weak digestive abilities. Acts only on emulsified fats, such as milk.

The most acid-rich digestive secretions are produced by glands located on the lesser curvature of the stomach.

Mucous secretion. Mucus is present in the gastric contents colloidal solution, contains glycoproteins and proteoglycans.

The role of mucus in digestion:

• protective;
• absorbs enzymes, this inhibits or stops biochemical reactions;
• inactivates hydrochloric acid;
• enhances the efficiency of the process of breaking down protein molecules into amino acids;
• regulates hematopoietic processes through the mediation of Castle factor, which chemical structure is a gastromucoprotein;
• participates in the regulation of secretory activity.

Mucus covers the inner walls of the stomach with a layer of 1.0-1.5 mm, thereby making them inaccessible to various types of damage, both chemical and mechanical.

Chemical structure internal factor Kastla classifies it among the mucoids. It binds vitamin B12 and protects it from destruction by enzymes. Vitamin B12 is an important component of the hematopoiesis process; its absence causes anemia.

Factors that protect the walls of the stomach from digestion by its own enzymes:

• the presence of a mucous film on the walls;
• enzymes are synthesized and are in an inactive form before the digestive process starts;
• excess pepsins are inactivated after the end of the digestive process;
• an empty stomach has a neutral environment, pepsins are activated only by the action of acid;
• the cellular composition of the mucous membrane often changes, new cells appear to replace old ones every 3-5 days.

Digestion process in the stomach

Digestion of food in the stomach can be divided into several periods.

Beginning of digestion

Brain phase. Physiologists call it complex reflex. This is the beginning of the process or the start-up phase. The digestion process begins even before food touches the walls of the stomach. The sight, smell of food and irritation of receptors oral cavity through visual, gustatory and olfactory nerve fibers enter the food centers of the cerebral cortex and medulla oblongata, are analyzed there and then fiber by fiber vagus nerve transmit signals that trigger the work of the secretory glands of the stomach. During this period, up to 20% of the juice is produced, so the food enters the stomach, which already contains a small amount of secretion, sufficient to start working.

Pavlov I.P. called such first portions of gastric juice an appetizing juice necessary to prepare the stomach for food intake.

At this stage, the digestion process can be stimulated or, conversely, reduced. This is influenced by external stimuli:

• pleasant appearance of dishes;
• good environment;
• food irritants taken before meals

All this has a positive effect on stimulating gastric secretion. Untidy or bad behavior has the opposite effect appearance dishes.

Continuing the digestion process

Gastric phase. Neurohumoral. It begins from the moment when the first portions of food touch the inner walls of the stomach. Simultaneously:

• mechanoreceptors are irritated;
• a complex of complex biochemical processes begins;
• The enzyme gastrin is released, which, when released into the blood, enhances secretory processes throughout the entire period of digestion.

This lasts for several hours. Stimulates the release of gastrin extra active substances meat and vegetable broths and protein hydrolysis products.

This phase is characterized by the greatest secretion of gastric secretions, up to 70% of total number or on average up to one and a half liters.

Final phase

Intestinal phase. Humoral. A slight increase in the secretion of gastric secretions occurs during the evacuation of stomach contents into the lumen of the duodenum, up to 10%. This occurs in response to irritation of the glands of the pylorus and the initial parts of the duodenum; enterogastrin is released, which slightly increases gastric secretion and stimulates further digestive processes.

1. What is the structure of the stomach? How is digestion carried out in the stomach?

The stomach is an expanded part of the digestive tube. In its mucous membrane there are glands that produce gastric juice (about 2-2.5 liters per day). Gastric juice contains hydrochloric acid, so it has an acidic reaction. Hydrochloric acid has a bactericidal effect. The composition of gastric juice includes enzymes - pepsin, lipase, chymosin. Pepsin breaks down proteins, lipase breaks down milk fats, and chymosin curdles milk. Digestion in the stomach occurs only at temperatures from +35 to +37°C and in the presence of hydrochloric acid.

To study digestion in the stomach, I.P. Pavlov conducted experiments with imaginary feeding on a dog. He placed a fistula on the stomach so that gastric juice could flow out of it. At the same time, the esophagus was cut so that food did not enter the stomach. Thus, Pavlov showed that the secretion of gastric juice occurs reflexively and is associated with the sight and smell of food ( conditioned reflex), as well as with food irritating the receptors of the oral cavity (an unconditioned reflex).

I. P. Pavlov called gastric juice released at the sight, smell and chewing of food appetizing. Thanks to it, the stomach is prepared in advance for food intake, and when it enters, the breakdown of nutrients immediately begins.

2. How does digestion and absorption occur in the intestines?

In the small intestine, food substances are converted into those compounds that are absorbed by the body.

The digestion process consists of 3 stages: cavity digestion, parietal (membrane) digestion and absorption. Cavity digestion occurs in the intestinal cavity under the influence of digestive enzymes secreted as part of digestive juices. Parietal is carried out by enzymes located on the cell membrane. The membranes form a large number of villi, on which a powerful layer of digestive enzymes is adsorbed. Small arteries penetrate into each villi; in the center there is lymphatic vessel and nerve fibers. Absorption products that penetrate through the walls of the villi enter the blood and lymphatic vessels. Glucose and amino acids are absorbed directly into the blood, and the products of fat breakdown (glycerol and fatty acids) first into the lymph, and from there into the blood. Pendulum-like movements of the annular and longitudinal muscles contribute to the mixing of the food gruel; peristaltic wave-like movements of the annular muscles ensure the movement of the gruel to the colon. Material from the site

The large intestine is the final section of the digestive tract. In the large intestine, food masses can linger for up to two days. The glands of the colon produce a lot of mucus and a small amount of digestive juices with a small content of enzymes. Colon bacteria destroy and digest fiber, synthesize vitamin K and B vitamins. Up to 10% of the food taken is not absorbed by the body. The remains of food masses are stuck together with mucus in the large intestine and become compacted. Stretching of the walls of the rectum with feces causes the urge to defecate, which occurs reflexively. The defecation center is located in sacral region spinal cord.

In the colon, water and the remains of digested food are absorbed, feces are formed and removed from the body.

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Digestion- This is the process of chemical and mechanical processing of food, during which it is digested and absorbed by the cells of the body. Digestive pigments process incoming food and break it down into complex and simple food components. First, proteins, fats and carbohydrates are formed in the body, which in turn become amino acids, glycerol and fatty acids, monosaccharides.

The components are absorbed into the blood and tissues, contributing to the further synthesis of complex organic substances necessary for the proper functioning of the body. Digestive processes are important for the body for energy purposes. Through the digestion process, calories are extracted from food, which improves performance. internal organs, muscles, central nervous system. The digestive system is complex mechanism, which involves the human oral cavity, stomach and intestines. If foods are not digested correctly and minerals remain unchanged, it will not benefit the body. U healthy person All stages of the digestion process last for 24 – 36 hours. Let's study the physiology and features of the digestive process in order to understand how the human body works.

To understand what digestion is, it is necessary to consider the structure and functions of the digestive system.

It consists of organs and departments:

• oral cavity and salivary glands;
• pharynx;
• esophagus;
• stomach;
• small intestine;
• colon;
• liver;
• pancreas.

The listed organs are structurally interconnected and represent a kind of tube, 7–9 meters long. But the organs are laid out so compactly that with the help of loops and bends they are located from the oral cavity to the anus.

Interesting! Crashes in digestive system lead to various diseases. To ensure proper digestion, give up poor nutrition, fatty foods, strict diets. It also has an adverse effect on organs bad ecology, regular stress, alcohol and smoking.

The main function of the digestive process is to digest food and gradually process it in the body to form nutrients that are absorbed into the lymph and blood.

But besides this, digestion performs a number of other important tasks:

• motor or motor is responsible for grinding food, mixing with the secretions of the digestive glands and further movement through the gastrointestinal tract;
• secretory ensures the breakdown of nutritional components into mucous membranes, electrolytes, monomers and final metabolic products;
• absorption promotes the movement of nutrients from the tract cavity into the blood and lymph;
• protective consists of creating barriers using the mucous membrane;
• excretory removes toxic substances and foreign bodies from the body;
• endocrine produces biologically active substances to regulate digestive functions;
• Vitamin-forming ensures the production of vitamins B and K.

Digestive functions include sensory, motor, secretory and absorption. Among non-digestive tasks, scientists distinguish protective, metabolic, excretory and endocrine.

Features of the digestion process in the oral cavity

The stages of human digestion in the oral cavity, where the grinding of food for further processing begins, are important processes. Products interact with saliva, microorganisms and enzymes, after which the taste of food appears and starchy substances are broken down into sugars. The processing process involves teeth and tongue. During coordinated swallowing, the uvula and palate are involved. They prevent food from entering the epiglottis and nasal cavity. The body analyzes incoming food, softens and grinds it. After this, it enters the stomach through the esophagus.

Digestive processes in the stomach

The stomach is located in the human body in the left hypochondrium under the diaphragm and is protected by three membranes: external, muscular and internal. The main function of the stomach is to digest food due to the abundant shunting of blood vessels and arteries by capillaries. This is the most wide part digestive tract, which can increase in size to absorb large amounts of food. During the processing of food in the stomach, the walls and muscles contract, after which it mixes with gastric juice. The process of chemical and mechanical treatment in the stomach lasts for 3 to 5 hours. Food is affected by hydrochloric acid, which is contained in gastric juice and pepsin.

Following the logical flow of the digestion process, proteins are processed into amino acids and low molecular weight peptides. Carbohydrates in the stomach stop being digested, so amylases lose their activity in an acidic environment. In the stomach cavity thanks to hydrochloric acid swelling of proteins occurs and a bactericidal effect is also provided. The peculiarity of the gastric digestion process is that foods rich in carbohydrates are processed briefly and after 2 hours they move on to next process. Proteins and fats remain in the compartment for up to 8 – 10 hours.

How does digestion occur in the small intestine?

Partially digested food, along with gastric juice, moves in small portions into the small intestine. This is where more important digestive cycles take place. Intestinal juice consists of alkaline environment due to the intake of bile, secretions of the intestinal walls and pancreatic juice. The digestion process in the intestines may slow down due to a lack of lactase, which hydrolyzes milk sugar. More than 20 enzymes are consumed in the small intestine as a result of the digestion process. The work of the small intestine depends on the uninterrupted functioning of three sections that smoothly transform into each other: the duodenum, jejunum and ileum.

During digestion, the duodenum receives bile formed in the liver. Due to the compounds of bile and pancreatic juice, proteins and polypeptides are broken down into simple particles: elastase, aminopeptidase, trypsin, carboxypeptidase and chymotrypsin. They are absorbed into the intestines.

Liver functions

It should be noted the invaluable role of the liver, which produces bile during the digestion process. The work of the small intestine would not be complete without bile, as it helps emulsify fats, activate lipases and absorb triglycerides into the stomach. Bile stimulates perilstatics, enhances the absorption of proteins and carbohydrates, increases hydrolysis and promotes the inactivation of pepsin. Bile plays an important role in the absorption and dissolution of fats and fat-soluble vitamins. If there is not enough bile in the body or it is secreted into the intestines, then the digestive processes are disrupted, and fats are released in their original form when feces are released.

Importance of the Gallbladder

In the gallbladder of a healthy person, reserves of bile are deposited, which the body uses when processing a large volume. The need for bile disappears after the duodenum is empty. But the liver's work does not stop when food is eliminated. It produces bile, storing it in the gallbladder so that it does not spoil and is stored until the need for it arises again.

If the gallbladder is removed from the body for some reason, its absence is easily tolerated. Bile is stored in bile ducts and from there it is easily and continuously sent to the duodenum, regardless of the fact of food intake. Therefore, after surgery, you need to eat often and in small portions so that there is enough bile to process it. This is due to the fact that there is no more space to store leftovers, which means that the reserve stock is extremely small.

Features of the large intestine

The remains of undigested food enter the large intestine. They stay in it for 10 – 15 hours. During this period, water absorption and microbial metabolization of nutrients occur. Thanks to the microflora of the large intestine, dietary fiber, which is classified as indigestible biochemical components, is destroyed in this section.

Among them are:

• wax,
• resin,
• gum,
• fiber,
• lignin,
• hemicellulose.

Feces are formed in the large intestine. They consist of residues that have not been digested during digestion, mucus, microbes and dead cells of the mucous membrane.

Hormones that affect digestion

In addition to the main sections of the gastrointestinal tract, the quality and speed of the digestion process are influenced by biologically active substances.

Name	Which department are they in?	Function
Gastroenteropancreatic endocrine system	endocrine system	produces peptide hormones
Gastrin	pyloric region	increased secretion of gastric juice, pepsin, bicarbonates and mucus, inhibition of gastric emptying, increased production of prostaglandin E
Secretin	small intestine	increased stimulation of bile production, increased alkali in pancreatic juice, provides up to 80% of bicarbonate secretion
Cholecystokinin	duodenum, proximal jejunum	stimulation of sphincter of Oddi relaxation, increased bile flow, increased pancreatic secretion
Somastostatin	pancreas, hypothalamus	decreased secretion of insulin, glucagon, gastrin

As we see, the process of digestion in the human body is a complex system, without which human life is impossible. Proper absorption of food contributes to the quality of the body. Each organ that makes up gastrointestinal tract, plays an important role. To maintain health, it is necessary to adhere to the principles of rational nutrition and exclude bad habits. Then the mechanisms will work like clockwork.

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