No one human body unable to exist without hormones. They accompany people everywhere, actively being developed at the moment when the need for them arises. IN human body a large number of different hormonal substances function. The lion's share These hormones account for peptides.
What are peptides and what is the basis of their action?
Peptide hormones are protein substances that are produced by various endocrine glands in the body. These glands include the following:
However, peptides are not only produced in specific glands; some of them are produced by adipose tissue, stomach cells, and some liver and kidney cells.
The mechanism of action of peptide hormones is typical for all active substances of this nature and does not depend on the place of production of the hormone itself. The points of application of activity and the final effect of the impact differ. All hormones act on target organs through communication with special receptors located on the cell membrane. Each receptor recognizes only “its” hormone, only the one that can influence it. In the cell, under the influence of the peptide bound to the receptor, intermediaries are formed in the form of various enzymes. These enzymes in the cell activate necessary functions, and an effective response to the action of the peptide hormone occurs.
Why does a person need the pituitary gland, and what peptides are formed there?
The pituitary gland is an appendage of the brain that is located on the lower part of the brain. Consists of anterior and posterior lobes. It is the anterior lobe that consists of a large number of glandular cells. Below is a list of peptide hormones of the anterior pituitary gland.
The posterior lobe of the pituitary gland, the neurohypophysis, usually does not produce hormones. Peptides are transported there from the hypothalamus, and they are deposited here. The most important of the stored hormones are vasopressin and oxytocin. Vasopressin performs two main functions: regulating the constancy of water in the body and constricting blood vessels. Oxytocin optimizes the process of childbirth and participates in lactation, facilitating the easy release of milk from the mother's glands.
The pituitary gland is closely connected to the hypothalamus. Together with it, it forms the regulatory hypothalamic-pituitary system, which is involved in many functions of the body. The hypothalamus is not a gland. It is a cluster of cells in a small space in the diencephalon. However, the cells located in the hypothalamus are active producers of vital hormones of peptide structure.
Are there peptides in the hypothalamus?
All peptide hormones of the hypothalamus are three various groups active substances. The largest group is releasing hormones. They have a stimulating effect on active substances anterior lobe of the pituitary gland. They are called liberins and, as their name suggests, influence the corresponding hormones in the pituitary gland. The main ones are the following:
- corticoliberin;
- Thyroliberin;
- somatoliberin;
- follyliberin;
- luliberin.
Thanks to the effects of liberins, the production of pituitary hormones is enhanced at those moments when the human body needs it. However, the production of active components of the pituitary gland does not always need to be enhanced. In some situations, it is necessary, on the contrary, to inhibit pituitary hormones. For this purpose, there is a second group of hypothalamic hormones. These are statins that inhibit the activity of the active components of the pituitary gland corresponding to the name.
- somatostatin;
- prolactostatin;
- melanostatin.
What do pancreatic peptide substances regulate?
Peptide hormones are not produced only in parts of the brain. Two important hormones, insulin and glucagon, are produced by the pancreas. The pancreas is an organ located in abdominal cavity, in the epigastrium. It has internal secreting activity, aimed at producing digestive hormones, and external, which produces hormones of a peptide nature. The formation of these active components occurs in special areas of the gland - the islets of Langerhans.
Insulin is the most important peptide hormone in the body. It is involved in the metabolism of carbohydrate energy, helps improve the transport of carbohydrates into muscles and adipose tissue. However, the main effect is glycemic control - a decrease in blood sugar concentration. The antipode is the second peptide pancreatic hormone - glucagon. Its participation in energy metabolism is to raise the concentration of sugar in the blood when the body needs it.
Could peptides form somewhere else?
Peptide hormones also include parathyroid hormone, produced in the parathyroid glands. The function of this active component aimed at regulating calcium metabolism in the body. It inhibits formation bone tissue and is secreted when the level of calcium in the blood decreases.
Several active peptide substances are produced in the thyroid gland. One of them is a complete antagonist of parathyroid hormone. Its name is calcitonin. It is involved in the exchange of calcium and phosphorus and stimulates the activity of bone tissue building cells.
Some hormones can affect the composition of the blood. They are called erythropoietins, which control the formation of red blood cells and the formation of hemoglobin in the blood, and thrombopoietins, which are involved in the process of platelet formation. These peptide hormones are produced by the liver and kidneys.
Conclusion
Thus, peptide hormones are involved in many biological processes organism, play vital role in controlling the functioning of most organs and systems. In many cases, they are irreplaceable, on which the very existence of a person depends.
Today, various drugs and supplements to improve performance are quite popular among athletes. best set weight and getting rid of excess fat. Modern pharmaceutical industry ready to offer dozens various drugs to fill this niche. Among them are steroids that were discovered in the last century, and modern peptides, as well as various biological active additives. But if steroids are already on everyone’s lips, and many already know about them harmful effects on the body, then the second group is currently known only to a narrow circle of professional athletes. Today we want to look at the reviews of those who took peptides, and also talk about this class of drugs in more detail.
A little history
The first peptides were discovered at the beginning of the last century, in 1900-1905. Then they were considered as bioregulators, with the help of which you can improve the health of the body. Reviews from those who took the peptides initially showed their high effectiveness, as a result of which work in this direction continued. Already in 1953, the first polypeptide hormone was synthesized, that is, a peptide consisting of a large number of amino acids that our body needs so much. Work in this direction has been continued and today more than a thousand types of peptides have been studied in detail, each of which differs in its effect on the body. At the same time, only in Russia there was research into peptides as drugs for treating and healing the body. Neither western medicine, nor Western cosmetology views them in this way. Perhaps this is why the reviews of those who took peptides as bioregulators are in some cases negative, that is, people did not achieve the effect they expected.
What are peptides
In fact, these are chains of amino acids linked together by amide bonds. Unless you are a chemist or scientist, this doesn't mean much to you. In fact for a long time after the peptides were discovered, they had no practical use. However, everything changed when professional athletes paid attention to them, believing that they could be useful for them. Where there is demand, there will always be supply, and many began to work in this direction pharmaceutical companies, discovering about 2000 peptides. However, despite widespread advertising propaganda and reviews from those who have taken peptides, it should be noted that their biological value and properties have not been fully studied.
How are amino acids and professional sports related? Peptides surround us everywhere, that is, this is not at all foreign element. The body itself synthesizes peptides to regulate internal biochemical processes. Most likely, this is what attracted the attention of professional athletes. The use of peptides in elite sports is based on the theory that they can be taken for a narrowly targeted effect on muscles. This is what gave impetus to the rapid production of these drugs and the growth in the number of their varieties.
Impact on the body
In fact, these substances are constantly produced by the body and carry their functional load. First of all, they work to regulate endocrine system. That is, peptides are extremely important for regulating hormone production. In turn, they protect the body from free radicals and toxins. Why does the body need additional peptides? With their deficiency, tissue regeneration slows down, and destruction processes, on the contrary, accelerate. Medicine has long known that many age-related changes organism are associated precisely with a lack of peptides.
This situation naturally raises the question of artificial replacement of natural peptides, that is, their production in the laboratory. However, if these processes in the body take minutes, then their artificial synthesis is very difficult. That is why the cost of manufactured drugs is very high.
Application of peptides
With the advent of these on the market, the demand for them is only growing. Why do people take peptides? Reviews from those who took it indicate that with their help they caused dry muscle mass. But we must take into account that today the choice of these drugs is very wide, and therefore the direction of action also differs from each other. Peptides help inhibit muscle breakdown and reduce fat layer, improve energy use, have a rejuvenating effect and stimulate cell renewal internal organs. In addition, these drugs cause bone growth and stimulate growth in young people (under 25 years of age). All of them, without exception, help strengthen the immune system, which means they can be used in recovery after serious illness. At first glance, this is really important and the right drug, which can be useful at any age, but some doubts creep in as to why doctors do not actively use it. If you go further in your investigation, it turns out that people who use peptides do not always get the desired effect. Reviews from recipients often indicate that the person never achieved his goal. Why is this happening? Let's look at the use of peptides to solve various problems, and at the end we will give the opinion of official medicine.
Fat Burning Peptides
The eternal problem of humanity is how to lose weight without doing anything. Indeed, today peptides are used not only in professional sports, but also among ordinary people who want to be slim and beautiful. Substances in this group act as activity stimulants. This, in turn, stimulates the burning of fat mass and the removal of excess fluid. We have already said that these are dietary supplements that are traditionally used in professional sports. They increase the production of adrenaline, the very substance that is responsible for the body working at the limit of its capabilities. At the same time, athletes know that high loads are accompanied by serious nervous exhaustion And painful sensations, since muscle fibers tend to get injured. All these points are also leveled out after you start taking these substances.
Today there are two large groups peptides:
- The first is structural, which have an impact not immediately, but gradually. They supply the body loading dose amino acids, accelerate muscle growth and dry out the body. As a result, you get pure muscle mass without fat.
- The second group is functional. Reviews from those who have taken peptides (injections) confirm that this particular group can effectively reduce the body’s fat reserves. Under their influence, appetite decreases and the rate of fat breakdown increases, and the immune system is strengthened. Of course, in order for weight loss to be effective, it is necessary to make some efforts, increase sports activity and change your diet.
Which peptides are fat burning?
It should be said that peptides are natural dietary supplements. You can buy them today in pharmacies and specialty stores. healthy eating. Of course, it would be a good idea to consult a doctor or at least a fitness instructor. The most well-known in terms of fat-burning effect are endorphin peptides. Normal level endorphin in the blood allows a person to keep his appetite under control and not overeat, and especially controls the consumption of sweets.
The peptide leptin has also proven itself to be excellent for weight loss. It reduces the hunger hormone in the body. Reviews from those who took peptides, the course of such treatment is called the road to slimness. Indeed, it happens that for years people torture themselves with all sorts of diets, but cannot achieve what they get after a series of injections.
In addition, Ipamoneril is a fat-burning peptide. Judging by the reviews, under its influence fat is burned and the aging of the body slows down, as well as sleep improves and mood rises.
If you are determined not only to burn fat, but also actively train, then try HGH Frag 176-191. Reviews from those who took peptides for weight indicate that this particular drug perfectly stimulates muscle mass gain. In addition, it helps muscles recover faster during intense exercise. This is extremely important in big sports.
GHRP-6 (hexaryl) is also quite popular; it stimulates appetite and burns fat, as a result of which the body builds lean muscle mass. Finally, we can recommend Glucagon, which enhances the functioning of areas of the brain responsible for the production of adrenaline, which means you can start training with renewed energy and achieve your goals faster.
You are probably confused by the term “hormone”. In fact, these drugs are natural and familiar to the body, as evidenced by numerous studies, as well as reviews of those who took peptides. The hormone is not artificially synthesized; moreover, these substances have undergone pharmacological studies, which have not revealed serious, side effects. These substances are neither anabolic steroids nor doping, so they can be safely used by athletes even before major competitions. There are still very important property, thanks to which peptides for people losing weight are becoming increasingly popular. The lost kilograms do not come back, as most often happens when a diet is canceled.
Peptides and bodybuilding
The above effects could not help but interest professional athletes. Moreover today hormonal drugs, anabolic steroids and steroids have long been banned, and their use is fraught with disqualification. In particular, reviews of those who took peptides for weight indicate that under their influence the production of natural anabolic hormones is enhanced. These are, first of all, growth hormone and testosterone, which are extremely important for increasing endurance and the ability to train to the limit of possibility. The effect of enhancing regeneration processes is extremely important. In addition, it is very important that the drug has a targeted effect on problem areas and on the mechanisms of cell division at the cellular level.
Pay attention to the last lines Special attention. Feedback from hosts best courses peptides especially emphasize this feature. Unlike ordinary hormones or steroids, which affect the entire body as a whole, peptides are able to affect individual organs and systems. Thus, the effectiveness of the drugs increases significantly, that is, training will give much more noticeable results. At the same time, the risk of side effects is reduced.
The benefits of peptides in elite sports
Probably the most important thing is the relatively low price. Let us clarify: regarding others hormonal drugs and steroids, the use of which really hits your pocket. Reviews of those who took the peptides rate their effectiveness as very high. Studies have been conducted in which athletes participated. One group took peptides and the other took placebo pills. All of them assessed their condition and the effectiveness of their training every day. As a result, the placebo group performed significantly worse, which is living proof that peptides play a big role in the lives of athletes. They are not as effective as hormonal drugs, their effect is much weaker. But they are not prohibited by law and are freely sold in any store sports nutrition. In addition, with the help of these drugs it is possible to regulate other processes that are extremely important for both an athlete and an ordinary person. Peptides regulate appetite (and you can select both those that reduce it and those that increase it, depending on the task), improve the quality of sleep, strengthen the immune system, and normalize emotional condition and increase libido.
Today, very big bets are being made on peptides. There is hope that modern research will allow you to select drugs that will affect only certain muscle groups. This will allow, in isolation from the rest of the body, to influence the required area, and also influence the growth rate muscle cells. Surely among our readers there will be those who will say that there have been amino acid preparations before. Yes, there were, for example BCAAs. But, unlike them, peptides are not only a building material. These are active substances that themselves are capable of triggering many processes and influencing their intensity.
Types of peptides and their applications
After reading reviews of those who have taken peptides, you can quickly understand what these drugs are for. The load that falls on an athlete’s shoulders is colossal, so it is extremely important to have a drug on hand that will help overcome it. However, their use is no different from most drugs; they are ordinary intramuscular injections. There are no difficulties in the preparation and storage of drugs. All bottles are stored in the refrigerator and diluted with saline before use. But with specific recommendations, the situation is more complicated; we have already said that today there are about 2000 types of peptides. Therefore, it is impossible to give universal advice on the frequency of injections, dosage, etc., it all depends on the type of peptide and individual characteristics body. However, we are reassured by the reviews of those who took peptides. They advise asking your sports trainer how to take it, and then arming yourself with an insulin needle and giving yourself a subcutaneous injection. Some of the drugs are very painful, others are quite tolerable, but for the sake of your goal you can be patient a little.
One of the most accessible is the HGH FRAG 176-191 peptide. One bottle of 2 mg will cost you 520 rubles. However, there are drugs that are much more expensive, for example, Follistatin-344, its cost is 4790 for one 2 mg bottle.
In addition, on specialized websites you can see hundreds of different names, and each drug has its own characteristics. To understand a little, we again look at the reviews of those who took peptides. Of course, there is no drug that would suit everyone, but most often combined courses consisting of six or more amino acids are used. So, for example, the GHRP-2 course will cost 1950 rubles. Five such bottles will be required for a month. Surely you are interested in reviews from those who took the course. Peptides have a very good effect on mass. In particular, after this course, according to athletes, appetite increases greatly and, as a result, muscle tissue grows effectively.
But the athletes went further and began experimenting with a combination of certain courses of peptides. And GHRP-2 + CJC1295 + Peg-MGF was considered the most effective among them. Combined use has the best effect on growth rate muscle tissue and regeneration of ligaments and joints, as well as strengthening bones. Reviews from those who took it indicate that this particular course ensures a decrease in the content of adipose tissue in the body. This allows you to achieve muscle definition without reducing your calorie intake and without conducting additional “body drying” courses.
Side effects
Actually it's not magic pill, which is guaranteed to solve all your problems. But it is not so. Peptides are great amount that the market is oversaturated with fakes, and also completely useless drugs. In addition, the effects of peptides are so individual that they may not have any effect on you personally. But the most important thing is different. Many of the peptides have the same side effects as This is primarily due to the fact that many of them affect the secretion of testosterone and insulin, as well as other hormones. As a result, you may experience a disruption in the functioning of your own secretion organs, and after stopping the course, various disorders will slowly develop. That is why the reviews of those who took peptides are far from uniform. Some got fantastic results for short term, and others - referral to an endocrinologist and long-term recovery.
Peptide hormones include oxytocin, vasopressin, gastrin, glucagon, insulin and others.
Oxytocin - 9-membered peptide produced by the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland. Oxytocin already 20-30 s after intravenous administration in an amount of only 1 mcg stimulates the secretion of milk by the mammary glands. In addition, as labor approaches, the sensitivity of the uterine muscles to oxytocin, which contracts under its influence, increases. Therefore, this hormone contributes to the normal course of childbirth, and it is this substance that allows the mother in labor not to associate the pain during childbirth with the newborn, and allows her to forget the pain during childbirth. This hormone can be called hormone of care and love. It affects the psycho-emotional state of women. Immediately after birth, it is produced in large quantities to form a tender and caring relationship in the child-mother system.
Vasopressin similar in structure and functional activity to oxytocin. However, its action is mainly aimed at regulating water metabolism; it increases blood pressure. IN wildlife In those animals that produce a lot of oxytocin and vasopressin, for example, swans and voles, stable pairs are formed.
Gastrin - I7-membered peptide secreted by the gastric mucosa. It stimulates the secretion of gastric juice.
Insulin - a protein produced in pancreatic cells, it regulates carbohydrate metabolism, facilitating the penetration of glucose into the cell, reduces the activity of enzymes that break down glycogen in the liver. In addition to insulin, the pancreas produces two more hormones - glucagon (insulin antagonist) and lipocaine (regulator of lipid metabolism).
Mechanism of action of peptide hormones.
Peptide hormones do not penetrate into target cells; they interact with protein receptors located on the outside of the surface of the plasma membrane. The vast majority of peptide hormones act according to the so-called adenylate cyclase mechanism : the protein-hormone complex with the receptor activates the enzyme adenylate cyclase, which accelerates the formation of cyclic AMP (Fig. 14). C-AMP has the ability to activate special enzymes - protein kinases, which catalyze the phosphorylation reactions of various proteins with the participation of ATP. In this case, phosphoric acid residues are included in the protein molecules. The main result of this phosphorylation process is a change in the activity of the phosphorylated protein. IN various types In cells, proteins with different functional activities undergo phosphorylation as a result of activation of the adenylate cyclase system. For example, these could be enzymes, nuclear proteins, membrane proteins. As a result of the phosphorylation reaction, proteins can become functionally active or inactive. Such processes will lead to changes in the rate of biochemical processes in the target cell.
Hormones – amino acid derivatives (other hormones)
To the group other hormones relate adrenalin And norepinephrine , produced by the adrenal medulla; thyroid hormones - thyroxine and triiodothyronine.
Adrenaline and norepinephrine are derivatives of the proteinogenic amino acid tyrosine
These hormones cause an increase blood pressure(except for the vessels of the brain and lungs), increase cardiac activity, contraction of smooth muscles, activate glycogen phosphorylase, lipase, and promote relaxation of the muscles of the bronchi and intestines. These hormones act via the adenylate cyclase mechanism.
Thyroxine (tetraiodothyronine) and triiodothyronine They are also derivatives of tyrosine (Fig. 32), they affect the activity of many enzymes localized in mitochondria, regulate the processes of biological oxidation in the body, the metabolism of fats and water, and influence the development of the body as a whole. Thyroid– the main depot of iodine in the body. In whales, the iodine content in this gland reaches 1 g/kg. With hyperfunction of the thyroid gland, oxidative processes intensify, cardiac and mental activity is disrupted, general exhaustion of the body and bulging eyes (Graves' disease) are observed.
Fig.32. The structure of thyroid hormones
Peptide hormones, or protein-peptide hormones, - common name hormones, which are proteins or peptides in structure. Peptide hormones in the body often function as triggers. They stimulate the production of other hormones, such as testosterone and corticosteroids. After using peptide hormones, anabolic processes in the body are significantly enhanced, muscle growth increases or the pain sensitivity threshold decreases.
Analogs of human peptide hormones include synthetic drugs, or drugs obtained using modern genetic engineering technologies. These are gonadotropin, growth hormone, adrenocorticotropic hormone and erythropoietin.
Gonadotropic hormones are produced in the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland and stimulate the functions of the gonads. This produces effects similar to those of testosterone, i.e. increased muscle mass.
Growth hormone causes skeletal growth in humans to a certain extent and is used by some athletes to build muscle mass. Drugs containing somatotropin, as growth hormone is also called, cause a number of side effects. These may be anomalies in the size of the hands, face, internal organs, in particular the liver. Exogenous growth hormone causes joint diseases, the development of diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases.
Adrenocorticotropic hormone, or ACTH, increases corticosteroid levels and is used by athletes to repair injured tissue and muscles. With prolonged use of exogenous ACTH, muscle death may occur. In addition, the athlete has problems sleeping, increases blood pressure, develops diabetes, stomach ulcers and other side effects.
Erythropoietin increases the number of red blood cells - erythrocytes. This significantly improves performance in endurance sports by increasing the oxygen transport function of the blood. Therefore, in some sports, international federations are forced to introduce additional doping controls for the number of red blood cells. Erythropoietin affects the body's hematocrit, i.e. it increases blood viscosity. In turn, for the normal supply of oxygen to tissues, although this sounds paradoxical in relation to the action of a drug that stimulates erythropoiesis, the body is forced to turn on mechanisms for increasing blood pressure. Stressful cardiac activity in this case can cause myocardial infarction. Other dangerous effects of erythropoietin are associated with cerebral palsy, the possibility of blood clots in the lungs.
Peptide hormones (small peptides, oligopeptides, simple proteins, glycoproteins) are the most numerous and diverse in composition and variable in comparative biological terms class of hormonal compounds.
Peptide hormones containing from 3 to 200 amino acid residues include all hypothalamic hormones and pituitary hormones, as well as insulin and glucagon secreted by the pancreas.
According to the characteristics of the chemical structure, properties and physiological functions This class of hormones included in it can be divided into families:
It is assumed that representatives of each of the majority of these families arose at the earliest stages of vertebrate evolution from a common hormonal precursor through a series of successive mutations and duplications of the coding gene, as well as associations of modified genes into larger ones.
This assumption does not apply to the parathyroid hormone and calcitonin family. The typology of hormones in this case is based not on the evolutionary-structural principle, but on the direction of their physiological effects.
Peptide hormones also include erythropoietin, thymus hormones, somatomedins, some insect neurosecretory hormones, etc.
Analysis of the functional properties of various sections of the peptide chain of neurohypophyseal hormones showed that the ring part of the hormone molecule and, first of all, the amino acid in the 3rd position are responsible for their binding to the receptors of the corresponding target organs.
Obviously, the presence of Phen in the 3rd position ensures the best binding of peptides predominantly by vasopressin receptors of cells of excretory organs and arterioles. The presence of isoleucine in the same position determines the greatest affinity of the hormone for the oxytocin receptors of myometrial cells (smooth muscle layer of the uterus) and myoepithelial formations of the mammary glands. However, both types of ring portion can still bind, albeit with different degrees of intensity, to both types of receptors and compete with each other for binding. Apparently, the structure of the entire 1-6 loop of neurohypophyseal peptides is responsible for the fundamental possibility of hormone-receptor interaction, and the residues in the 3rd position of the loop determine the strength of this interaction with a particular type of receptor and the specificity of the effect. The role of acton, according to existing concepts, is performed by the side chain and the tyrosine residue in the 2nd position.
Currently, the main directions of development of research on protein-peptide hormones are:
1) study of the fine structural and functional organization of genes and mRNA encoding protein-peptide hormones of mammals, identification of the main regulatory elements of these genes, analysis of their structure and mechanisms of tissue-specific multihormonal (multifactor) regulation.
2) study of genes and mRNA encoding protein factors that regulate the expression of these mammalian protein-peptide hormones, analysis of their structure and mechanisms of interaction with the regulatory regions of the promoter regions of protein-peptide hormone genes;
3) study of the structural and functional organization of protein-peptide hormones themselves, identifying the functional significance of individual amino acid domains, elucidating the natural relationships between the amino acid sequence and functional activity;
4) elucidation of the molecular mechanisms of action of protein-peptide hormones in the target cell, deciphering the chain of molecular signals that realize the effect of the peptide hormone from the surface of the cell membrane receptor on a gene localized in the chromosome.
