Valuation of farm animals
The grading of farm animals is their assessment of quality and productivity. Valuation is carried out at the end of the year to determine the breeding value of animals and their further use.
In large and specialized farms, special commissions of specialists are created for grading. Each animal is assigned to a specific class. Highest class - elite - for sheep, pigs, horses; elite record - for cows. Animals of this class are used as producers. This is followed by: Class 1 – animals that meet the minimum requirements necessary for breeding; 2nd grade and 3rd grade are the lowest. Animals of the lower classes are used for slaughter or for work needs. For each class set minimum indicators in terms of productivity, live weight, exterior. As a result of grading, all animals are divided into groups:
Tribal Core;
User group;
For sale;
For fattening.
The relationship between animals of individual groups that differ in gender, age and economic characteristics is called the structure of the herd. For example, the structure of a cattle herd is formed as follows: sires, cows, heifers, heifers up to two years old and young animals (heifers and calves).
Currently, there are no breeding bulls on non-specialized farms, because Cows are inseminated artificially. In this case, bulls are not included in the herd structure. The structure of the herd corresponds to the specialization of the farm. In dairy farms, the share of dairy cows is 50-60%, and in a herd of beef cattle it is 30-40%.
Proper feeding of farm animals is the basis of animal husbandry. Feed affects the condition of animals, their health, productivity, and product quality. For example, the composition of milk (fat content, protein content, lactose) depends on the composition and quality of feed. Lard, when fattened with barley, turns out to be dense, grainy, and when fed with cake and oats, the lard is soft and spreadable. As mentioned above, with adequate feeding, the cost per unit of livestock production is lower than with meager feeding.
The chemical composition of the feed is as follows:
1. Proteins are nitrogenous substances that contain proteins and amides. Proteins are complex organic substances consisting of amino acids and having great nutritional value, which depends on the composition of amino acids and their ratio. Of the 30 amino acids in proteins, 10 are essential, i.e. – cannot be synthesized in the body and must come from outside, with feed. If there are not enough essential amino acids, the reproduction of animals and their productivity are impaired, and animals are more susceptible to various diseases.
Amides are intermediate products that are formed in plants during protein synthesis, as well as during protein breakdown under the action of enzymes and bacteria. Green grass, silage, haylage, and root crops are rich in amides. Ruminant animals (cattle, sheep, goats) use nitrogenous substances of non-protein origin due to the activity of the microflora of their gastrointestinal tract.
2. Carbohydrates – starch, fiber, sugar. Plant feed contains up to 75% carbohydrates; they are the main source of nutrition for farm animals. Large amounts of fiber are found in cereal straw (40%) and hay (18-20%). Fiber is essential for all animals, but it plays a particularly important role in the diet of ruminants. With a lack of fiber, the digestive process is disrupted. Cows' milk yield and fat content decrease. The optimal fiber content in the diet of cows is 18-20% of dry matter. Young grass is poor in fiber, so in early spring, when cows graze on pasture, the fat content of milk decreases, therefore, it is necessary to add feed rich in fiber to the animals' diet.
Starch is found in seeds, fruits and tubers. Cereal grains contain up to 70% starch. Sugars in plants are found in the form of glucose and fructose. Sugars are easily digestible in animals and are of great importance, especially for ruminants. They are rich in sugars: sugar beets, beet molasses, herbal flour, vetch-oat mixture. One feed unit of a cow's diet should contain 80-120 g of sugars.
3. Fats– have a very high energy value – it is 2 times higher than that of carbohydrates. Fats play a very important role in the body important role being, first of all, a source of energy. In addition, fats participate in cellular metabolism and are a reserve reserve in the animal’s body. Fats are contained in oil seed processing waste - cake and meal (4-8%).
4. Minerals are part of blood, bones, teeth, muscle and nerve tissue. With a lack of minerals, animals' general condition worsens, metabolic processes are inhibited, and bone diseases occur. Minerals are divided into macro- and microelements.
Macroelements include calcium, phosphorus, sodium, potassium, magnesium, sulfur, and chlorine.
Calcium serves as material for bone tissue If it is deficient, animals suffer from rickets (young animals) and softening of the bones (adult animals).
Phosphorus participates in fat and carbohydrate metabolism, is part of bones. It is as important as calcium in the diet of young animals. The ratio of calcium and phosphorus in feed should be 1:1 for young animals, and 1:2 for adult animals.
Sodium necessary to maintain normal osmotic pressure, neutralize acids, and muscle excitability. It is found in blood plasma, digestive juices, muscle tissue. There is usually little sodium in feed, so rock salt is added to the animals' diet to compensate for its deficiency.
Potassium necessary for plants for good functioning of the heart muscle. With a lack of potassium, young animals stop growing. Potassium is usually contained in feed in sufficient quantities.
Magnesium found in the bone and lung tissue of animals; if there is a deficiency, animals get sick and, in some cases, die. Cake and meal contain a lot of magnesium.
Chlorine is an integral part of hydrochloric acid, which is part of the gastric juice, a deficiency leads to low acidity and makes it difficult to digest food, so rock salt(NaCI) should always be present in the diet of animals.
Sulfur found in wool, feathers, hooves, horns, is part of the most important amino acids, and participates in cellular metabolism.
Microelements. There are about 60 of them in the animal body. The main ones are iron, copper, iodine, cobalt. The daily need for them is thousandths and millionths of a percent of the total need for nutrients ah, but their role is enormous. They increase the activity of enzymes, vitamins, and hormones. Iron is part of hemoglobin; with a lack of iron, animals suffer from anemia (anemia). It is introduced into the diet with solutions of iron sulfate, as a supplement.
To compensate for the lack of copper, use a solution of copper sulfate. Copper is involved in hematopoietic function, the synthesis of B vitamins, and is part of enzymes.
Vitamins– organic substances that are biologically active in very small doses. Vitamin deficiency leads to stunted growth in young animals, weight loss in adult animals, and increases susceptibility to various diseases.
When there is a lack of vitamins in animals, avitaminosis occurs; when there is an excess, hypervitaminosis occurs, but most often there is a hidden form of vitamin deficiency - hypovitaminosis.
Vitamin content is expressed in milligrams per kg of feed, or in international units(ME). The classification of vitamins is based on their solubility in water (B vitamins and vitamin C) and fats (vitamins A; D; E; K). When preparing a diet for pets, you should take into account the vitamin content in the food, and if there is a deficiency, replenish the content with the help of vitamin supplements.
The most important indicators The quality and efficiency of feed are their digestibility and nutritional value.
Digestibility - shows what part (in %) of the eaten feed is digested by farm animals. The ratio of nutrients digested to those taken in is called the digestibility coefficient (DI). For example, a cow received 10 kg of dry matter of feed, excreted 3.5 kg in feces, therefore the animal absorbed 6.5 kg of nutrients. KP = 6.5: 10 ∙ 100% = 65%.
To assess the nutritional value of feed in Russia, a feed unit has been adopted. For 1 feed unit (feed unit) 1 kg of oats of average quality is taken, from which 150 g of fat is deposited when fattening oxen.
The feed unit was obtained by calculation, based on the content of digestible nutrients in oats and their productive effect.
All feeds are divided into groups based on nutritional value and composition:
1. Vegetable feed (juicy, roughage, concentrated);
2. Animal feed (milk, whey, buttermilk, meat and meat and bone meal, non-food fish meal);
3. Mineral feed (chalk, rock salt, tricalcium phosphate);
4. Vitamin supplements and synthetic additives;
5. Compound feed.
1. Plant feeds, in turn, are divided into: juicy, coarse and concentrated.
a) Succulent feed - silage, root crops, pasture grass and haylage. The composition of succulent feed includes 65-92% water, a relatively small content of protein, fat and fiber. The dry matter of succulent feed contains mainly starch and sugar. Juicy feeds are characterized by high dietary properties and digestibility. Animals digest the organic matter of succulent feed by 75–90%.
Of the group of succulent foods, the most nutritious is silage. Ensiling is a simple and reliable way to store succulent feed. Silage can be harvested from spring to late autumn. For silage, both specially sown crops and natural forage grasses are used.
Silage is prepared and stored in silos, which are made in the form of towers, trenches and pits. The storage facilities are filled without interruption, within 2-3 days. To do this, green plants are mowed down with a silage harvester, crushed and unloaded from the bunker into a machine that delivers the silage mass to the storage location. Dense packing creates conditions for the silage process, which must take place without access to oxygen.
The plant mixture undergoes lactic acid fermentation, which occurs best at a raw material moisture content of 65-75%. The resulting lactic acid is the substance that protects the feed from further decomposition.
The raw materials for silage are corn, sunflower, sorghum, green meadow grass, clover, alfalfa, tops of root crops, lashes of melons, tops of root crops. Silage nutritional coefficient 40-45%; 1 kg of silage contains, depending on the composition, about 0.2 feed. units and up to 22 g of digestible protein.
Haylage – green mass, dried, crushed and preserved in trenches or hermetic towers. In haylage, conservation is determined by the physiological dryness of the plants. There is little loss of nutrients in haylage, and unlike silage, it is not acidic, but fresh food that is well eaten by animals. 1 kg of haylage contains 0.3-0.4 feed. units and 50-60 g of digestible protein. The most productive haylage is prepared from high-protein leguminous grasses - clover and alfalfa; they are mowed at the beginning of budding. Annual grasses, such as vetch-oat mixture, are also suitable for haylage production. Cereal grasses are mowed for haylage at the beginning of heading.
b) Roughage - hay, straw, chaff (chaff), grass meal - are characterized by a high fiber content (more than 20%). In winter, they form the main part of the diet of ruminants and horses.
Hay obtained by natural drying of herbs, the water content in it should not exceed 15%. The composition and nutritional value of hay depend on the botanical composition of the plants, the phase of their growing season, harvesting and storage conditions. The most valuable part of hay is cereals and legumes. The best of the cereals are meadow foxtail, meadow and steppe timothy, meadow fescue, creeping wheatgrass, meadow and common bluegrass, and cocksfoot. Legumes include alfalfa, clover, sainfoin.
Grass is cut for hay during the heading phase of cereals and at the beginning of flowering of legumes. During this period, plants contain the maximum amount of feed units, digestible protein, vitamins, mineral elements and less fiber. Grass is dried for hay in several ways: in swaths, in windrows, followed by further drying in stacks, on hangers, and artificially. Average daily norm hay for horses 8-10 kg, for cows 6-7 kg, for young animals over 1 year old - 4-6 kg, for sheep 1-2 kg.
Herbal meal prepared from artificially dried grass. Artificial drying is completely mechanized, the process includes: mowing grass with a mower with simultaneous chopping; transportation of mass for drying on high-temperature drum-type drying units; grinding the mass into flour and packaging it. 1 kg of grass meal contains 0.7-0.8 feed. units and 80-100 g of digestible protein. The moisture content of herbal flour should not exceed 10-12%. To reduce the loss of nutrients, briquettes and granules are prepared from grass meal.
Straw– roughage containing a high amount of fiber. Straw digestibility is slightly below 50%. To increase its nutritional value they use different ways straw processing: chopping, steaming, introduction into feed mixtures, granulation, treatment with alkalis, lime, ammonia, ensiling and yeasting.
Chaff (chaff)– a feed product obtained by threshing and cleaning grain. It consists of green films, ears, plant leaves, broken and puny grains, and weed seeds. The chaff of spring cereals is better than that of winter cereals. Good chaff is obtained by threshing millet and oats. Aurous varieties of wheat and barley produce chaff that is very hard and dangerous for animals; it can only be used after thorough steaming.
The chaff of clover, lentils and soybeans is especially highly valued; the chaff of peas, beans and vetch is somewhat inferior in nutritional value. The chaff is fed to animals moistened or mixed with succulent feed.
c) Concentrated feeds – grains and by-products of grain and oilseed processing.
Grain feeds contain a large amount of nutrients and little water per unit weight. Cereal grains are rich in carbohydrates (starch), legume grains are rich in protein, and oil seeds are rich in fat. Grain feed contains a lot of phosphorus and B vitamins. Highest value Oats, barley, corn and legumes are used in feeding farm animals.
Oats- By dietary properties one of the best feeds for all farm animals. In terms of nutritional value, 1 kg of oats is equal to 1 feed unit and contains 87 g of digestible protein, 1.3 g of calcium, and 2.8 g of phosphorus. Oats are fed as whole grains, flattened, or ground (oatmeal).
Barley- nutritional value 1.21 feed. units and 81 g of digestible protein. It is especially valuable for fattening pigs, but compared to oats, it contains less fiber and more starch. It is advisable to use barley in the diet of dairy cows, fattened poultry, and laying hens.
Corn– high-quality concentrated feed containing 69% starch and 6-8% fat, nutritional value 1.3 feed. units Corn is easily digestible, but poor in protein. Corn is fed in the form of derti and flour. To prepare flour, sometimes the entire cob is ground - with grain and core.
Legume grain– is high in protein but, with the exception of soy, low in fat. Legumes are well digested and contain a lot of phosphorus and calcium. Peas, vetch, and lentils are of greatest importance for animal feeding.
By-products of flour milling production: bran, oilseed cake, beet pulp, molasses - molasses, stillage, potato pulp.
Bran ranks first among the by-products of processing plant products. In terms of overall nutritional value, bran is inferior to grain, but richer in fat, minerals (especially phosphorus), and B complex vitamins. Bran can be wheat, rye, oat, barley, and others, especially valuable for dairy cows.
Oil seed processing products are obtained by extracting oil mechanically (cake) and by extraction (meal).
Cake Available in the form of tiles. It is rich in protein - 30-40% and fat - 4-8%. The most common are sunflower and flaxseed cake. The nutritional value is about 1.15 feed. units, digestible protein 285 g. These products are used to feed dairy cows and pigs.
Schrot The cake is poorer in fat, its content is about 1-3%. Beetroot pulp- a waste product from sugar beet processing; its nutritional value is closer to watery root vegetables and is easily digested by animals. Feed nutritional value of pulp 0.85 feed. units, but the meal is poor in protein, which is why its feed value is much reduced.
Molasses– feed molasses – a residue from starch production. Contains up to 60% sugar, 9% protein, fed only in mixture with other feeds: silage, pulp, straw cuttings. Before use, molasses is diluted with water at the rate of 3-4 liters of water per 1 kg of molasses. This solution is used to water straw cuttings or silage.
Barda– residue of alcohol production, contains up to 90-95% water. The dry matter of grain stillage contains up to 20-25% protein. Stillage is used fresh for fattening livestock. For long-term storage of stillage, silage is used in a mixture with straw or in pure form.
Potato pulp is crushed potato tubers from which most of the starch has been washed out. The pulp contains 85% water. The pulp is fed to adult cattle in a mixture with straw cuttings and chaff. It is given to pigs boiled.
2. Animal feed. These include milk and its by-products, as well as waste from the fishing and meat industries and other animal products. All of them are rich in complete protein, minerals and are well absorbed by animals.
Whole milk necessary for young animals in the first months of life. It contains all the essential nutrients in an easily digestible form.
Return(skim milk with less fat), buttermilk and whey are very nutritious for calves, lambs and piglets.
Meat, meat and bone meal, blood and fish meal contain up to 90% protein. They are used as protein supplements in feeding pigs and poultry.
3. Mineral feeds are necessary to replenish mineral micro and macroelements in the diet of animals.
Rock or table salt- necessary to compensate for the lack of sodium and chlorine. It improves the palatability of the feed, and it is better eaten by animals. Salt is given to ruminants in the form of a stone - lick, while to pigs and poultry - in ground form. Excess salt has a negative effect on keeping animals.
Chalk stern used as a source of calcium (up to 40%). It is introduced into the diet of animals in a mixture with concentrated feed and silage.
Tricalcium phosphate feed is used as a calcium-phosphorus additive in a mixture with concentrated and succulent feed.
4. Vitamin feed. In practice, synthetic vitamin supplements are used, produced taking into account the type of animal or bird, age and economic purpose. Of the feeds described above, green grass, grass meal, red carrots, and green silage are rich in vitamins. A good vitamin food is pine flour, which contains a large amount of vitamin C. Pine needle flour is included in the diet of cattle - up to 1 kg per day, pigs - 200-300 g / day, poultry - 2-5 g / day. per animal.
The amino acids lysine and methionine are commercially produced in the form of synthetic additives. They make up for the lack of amino acids in conventional feed, improve metabolic processes in the body of animals, the activity of enzymes, improve the general condition, and activate the growth and development of farm animals.
Antibiotics are added to the feed of young growing animals in unfavorable conditions, which stimulates their weight gain by 10-15%. The antimicrobial action of antibiotics helps fight diseases in farm animals.
Urea or synthetic urea CO(NH 2) 2 - compensates for the lack of proteins in the diet of ruminants. The high nitrogen content (46%) allows you to replenish 25-30% of the protein in the feed. Urea is a synthetic product produced by industry in large volumes and is used as a feed additive at the rate of 0.25-0.30 g per 1 kg of live weight. The most effective and safe way The use of urea is its inclusion in granulated feed mixtures.
Urea should not be fed to heavily pregnant, highly productive cows or emaciated animals. Urea is not used for pigs and horses (animals with a single-chamber stomach).
5. Compound feed. The composition of the feed includes various types of feed grains, residues technical production, vitamins, amino acids, microelements. Compound feed is a balanced feed in which the lack of substances in some components is compensated by their excess in others. They produce feed in loose and granulated form according to special recipes, taking into account the type of animal, physiological state, focus and productivity.
Feed for cattle includes feed grain, cakes, meal, chaff, bran, etc. For poultry - grain processing products, animal feed, feed yeast, minerals, antibiotics, vitamins, etc. Feed for pigs is very diverse. When feeding animals, you should use feed intended for a specific species.
Feeding rate is a certain amount of nutrients and feed energy required by the animal for normal life and production.
Feeding rates are expressed in metabolic energy (MJ), the content of digestible protein, calcium, phosphorus and carotene.
Feeding standards are drawn up in relation to animals of each species, taking into account their physiological state, age, and level of productivity.
Animal feeding ration is a selection of feed that meets the nutritional value of a certain feeding norm and satisfies the physiological needs of the animal, taking into account its productivity.
The structure of the diet is the ratio of roughage, succulent and concentrated feed as a percentage of their total nutritional value. Depending on the ratio of these types of feed, 2 types of feeding are distinguished:
1 type with a larger share of succulent green feed. The structure of the diet is as follows: juicy - 55%, rough - 25%; concentrated - at the rate of: 100-200 g per 1 liter of milk. It is used in the Central Black Earth Region and southern regions of the Russian Federation. Livestock diets include a lot of root crops, perennial and annual grasses, and high-yielding silage crops. In summer, cattle are provided for grazing on pastures, and livestock are also supplied with green fodder grown on arable land or cultivated forage lands. With this type of feeding, about 4000 kg of milk per year can be obtained from one cow, at a cost of 0.85 feed per 1 kg of milk. units..
Type 2– a large proportion of roughage, silage, pasture grass. It is used in the regions of the Urals, Western Siberia, and the Non-Black Earth Region. During the stall period, the content of roughage in the diet is 50%, juicy - 40%, concentrated - 10%. In summer, livestock receive the bulk of their feed on pastures. This type of feeding allows you to get up to 3000 kg of milk per year, at a cost of 1.15 feed per 1 kg. units
Currently general trend in feeding farm animals is the transition from a multi-component diet to a mono-diet, including all the necessary nutritional components. This is explained by the fact that in conditions of intensive livestock farming, a large variety of feeds complicates the processes of mechanization of procurement, transportation, preparation for feeding and distribution of different feeds.
Questions for self-control:
1. Indicators characterizing domestic animals.
2. Types of productivity of farm animals.
3. Chemical composition of feed.
4. Classification of feed.
5. Types of plant foods.
6. Mineral and vitamin feeds, their role in feeding domestic animals.
7. Concepts: feed unit, rate and diet of feeding domestic animals.
LECTURE No. 11
subject: Feeding farm animals
PLAN:
The importance of complete standardized feeding of animals.
Feeds, their classification and nutritional value.
Green and roughage.
Juicy feed.
Concentrated feed.
Animal feed.
Mineral supplements and vitamin preparations.
LITERATURE.
1. Mechanization and technology of livestock production / V.G. Koba, N.V. Bragintsev, D.N. Murusidze, V.F. Nekrashevich. M.: Kolos, 1999. 528 p. Section 1, Chapter 3.
1. The importance of complete standardized feeding of animals.
Adequate feeding of farm animals is about P the determining factor in the production of livestock products about water management.
The importance of adequate feeding of farm animals can be judged by the fact that in the structure of production costs, the share of feed in milk production is 50 ... 55%, beef 65 ... 70%. For animals, it is not only the quantity that is important, but mainly the quality of feed, which is determined by the nutrient content in it. The level of productivity, product quality, and animal health depend on adequate feeding, which generally determines the efficiency of livestock farming as a branch of agricultural production.
Feeds, their classification and nutritional value nity.
Stern - vegetable, animal or mineral products With walks used for feeding agricultural livestock t nykh.
Feed are products containing nutrition that are specially prepared and used for feeding farm animals A nutrient substances in digestible form and do not have harmful effects T impact on animal health and the quality of products obtained from them to tion.
Classification of feed.
By energy value:
voluminous (1 kg of mass contains up to 0.6 feed units);
concentrated (in 1 kg of mass more than 0.6 feed units).
By origin:
vegetable;
animals;
microbiological synthesis;
chemical synthesis;
combined.
For practical purposes, the following classification of feed has been adopted: green (grass pastures and green supplements); rude (hay, straw, chaff, twig and tree food); juicy (silage, haylage, root crops, tubers, melons and other juicy fruits);concentrated(grain and seeds, cake, meal, etc.);animal origin(whole and skim milk, whey, meat and bone and fish meal, etc.);waste from technical production(alcohol, sugar, canned food, oil and fat); food waste; microbiological synthesis(yeast, microbial protein); synthetic nitrogen additives; mineral and vitamin supplements; compound feed.
Under nutrition understand the ability of food to satisfy the diverse natural needs of animals for food. Depending on what needs of the animal’s body and to what extent the food satisfies, its nutritional value is divided into general (energy), protein, mineral and vitamin.
To assess the nutritional value of feed, it is necessary to know the chemical composition, caloric content and digestibility of feed, as well as the use (digestibility) of nutrients by animals.
The main part of substances of plant (96...98%) and animal (about 95%) origin are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. Moreover, plants contain more oxygen, and the body of animals contains more nitrogen, carbon and hydrogen.
Any food consists of dry matter and water.
Dry matter. In dry matter there are mineral and organic parts. Mineral partfeed is characterized by the presence of mineral nutrition elements (calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, potassium, iron, copper, etc.) in the form of various compounds.Organic partfeed consists of two types of substances: nitrogenous (crude protein) and nitrogen-free (crude fat, crude fiber, extractives).
Water. The more water in the food, the lower its nutritional value. The water content of feed varies widely. For example, in grains, hay and straw it is 14...15%, in green feed - 60...85%, and in root crops - up to 90%.
Water is the main solvent and participant in the main physiological processes, during which nutrients absorbed from the intestines are delivered to all cells and tissues of the body, and waste products are removed from them.
Minerals.As part of all cells and tissues of the animal body, minerals perform important physiological functions in the body. They are structural elements of a number of enzymes and hormones, some of them activate their action, form the basis of bone tissue, and take part in the regulation of the nervous and cardiovascular systems, protein, carbohydrate, fat and water metabolism.
More than 60 mineral substances have been found in animal tissues. They are divided into two groups: macroelements (calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, magnesium, chlorine, sulfur, etc.) and microelements (iron, copper, zinc, cobalt, manganese, iodine, etc.).
Squirrels have exclusively important in the life of a living organism, being one of the main elements of animal nutrition and serving as a source of “building materials” for the body. Compared to other groups of nutrients, protein compounds occupy a special place in feeding livestock and poultry, since they cannot be replaced by either fats or carbohydrates.
Protein feed serves as a source of animal body protein. Proteins include antibodies that perform protective functions, and enzymes.
The main components of feed proteins, from which the body synthesizes its body protein, are amino acids , which are the end products of the breakdown of feed proteins in the digestive tract of farm animals.
Amino acids divided into replaceable and irreplaceable. Essential (vital) amino acids include lysine, methionine, tryptophan, histidine, leucine, isoleucine, phenylalanine, valine, arginine, threonine. The first three amino acids are called critical. They are especially needed for pigs and poultry, since their content in grain feed is negligible.
Approximate protein content in various feeds,%: cereal hay 6...8, legume hay 12...16, cereal grain 8...12, legume grain 20...30, root vegetables 0, 5…1, cake, meal 30...40, animal feed 50…70. Proteins of animal origin have high biological value: fish, blood, meat and meat and bone meal, whey, milk. Proteins from leguminous plants - alfalfa, clover, peas, soybeans, etc. - are characterized by good biological value.
Vitamins. Normal functioning of a living organism is impossible without vitamins. Their absence or deficiency in feed leads to metabolic disorders and diseases called vitamin deficiencies.
The level of some vitamins in livestock products - milk, eggs, meat, butter - is directly dependent on their amount in diets. The content of vitamins in feed is affected by various factors: type and variety of plants, soil, climate, growing season, etc.
More than 20 vitamins have been studied. Methods have been developed for isolating them in their pure form, as well as methods for the artificial synthesis of some vitamins. According to their chemical nature, vitamins are divided into two groups:fat-soluble and water-soluble. Fat-soluble vitamins include A,D , E, K, water-soluble group vitamins B and C.
Feed digestibilitydetermined by the difference between nutrients taken with food and excreted from the body. The higher the digestibility of the feed, the greater its nutritional value. The digestibility of feed is assessed by the digestibility coefficient, which is the percentage of digested substances to those consumed with feed.
To determine the digestibility coefficient of the organic matter of the feed or its individual parts, it is necessary to know how much of these nutrients came with the feed and how much was excreted in the feces, i.e.didn't get it. For example, a cow received 10 kg of organic matter with feed, but excreted 2 kg. The digestibility coefficient will be
Assessment of nutritional value of feed. Under general nutritional valuefeed understand the content of all organic substances in it or the amount of energy introduced with it. The energy nutritional value of feed is assessed by the content of feed units in it.The nutritional value of 1 kg of dry (standard) oats is taken as a feed unit, equivalent to 1414 kcal (5920.4 kJ) of fat deposition energy or the deposition of 750 g of fat in the body of a fattening ox.For scientific research, nutritional value is recommended to be assessed in energy feed units (EFU), reflecting the need of animals for metabolic energy. 1 EKE is taken to be 2500 kcal (10467 kJ) of metabolic energy.
Feeding rate this is the amount of nutrients necessary to satisfy the needs of animals in order to maintain the vital functions of the body and obtain the intended products of good quality while maintaining health.
Based on the feeding standards of the animals, a daily ration is prepared.
Diet this is a set of feeds that corresponds in nutritional value to a certain feeding norm and satisfies physiological need animal in nutrition, taking into account its productivity. TO rations for farm animals the following are required: requirements. In terms of nutritional value, they must correspond to the feeding standards and biological characteristics of a certain animal species; contain substances that have a beneficial effect on digestion; be varied in the range of feeds and sufficient in volume. It is advisable to include in the diet feed that is, if possible, cheap and produced mainly on the farm.
Green and roughage.
To green foodinclude grasses of natural and cultivated hayfields and pastures, green mass of crops and other plants. Young grass, despite its high water content (70...80%), is characterized by significant nutritional value. In terms of energy nutrition and protein content in dry matter, green grass is close to concentrated feed, and its protein has a high biological value.
Green food contains large quantities of almost all the vitamins and minerals necessary for the animal’s body.
Green fodder is the main source of feed during the grazing period. In the animal feed ration they occupy 26% and more.
Compound green feed depending on the type and phase of plant vegetation, %: water 60...80, protein 20...25, fiber 10...18, fat 4...5, nitrogen-free extractives 35...50, minerals 9…11in terms of dry matter.Green grass is cheaper per feed unit than other feeds.
Hay the most important feed and one of the main sources of protein, minerals and vitamins for cattle, sheep, and horses in winter. Hay is obtained by natural or artificial drying of grass to a moisture content of 14...17%. In 1 kg of hay I class contains 0.45...0.55 feed. units, 65...80 g of digestible protein, at least 30 mg of carotene.
The optimal timing for mowing cereal grasses for hay is the beginning of heading, legumes are budding, the beginning of flowering. During this period, plants have more foliage and contain the maximum amount of nutrients and little fiber.
To obtain highly nutritious hay, grass harvesting for each type of hayfield should begin at optimal timing and finish in 8...10 days. Even if hay is dried under favorable weather conditions, the total loss of nutrients is 20...30%, and under unfavorable weather conditions it reaches 40...50% of the initial content in the grass.
There are several ways drying herbs for hay:
harvesting loose hay;
preparation of chopped hay;
harvesting of pressed hay;
drying of herbs using active ventilation method.
4. Juicy feed.
The main succulent feeds include: silage, haylage and root crops e fruits.
Silage the main type of feed in winter rations for cattle and sheep. The great advantages of silage are: small losses of nutrients during its preparation - 15...20% (for comparison: for hay - 30%) and the ability to obtain it in any weather.
The essence of ensiling is that isolating the feed from air stops the development of all aerobic bacteria and mold fungi, and the lactic acid formed as a result of the vital activity of lactic acid bacteria, the semi-acidic feed, suppresses anaerobic putrefaction, butyric acid and other processes.
Silage conditions. To obtain silage High Quality a number of conditions must be met. First of all, green mass must be harvested at the optimal time. Corn should be cut at the end of the phasemilky ripenessgrains and in the phase of waxy ripeness, chickpea-oat mixtures in the phase of waxy ripeness of grains in the first two lower tiers of beans, sunflower in the period from the beginning to 50% flowering of the heads, perennial cereal grasses in the heading phase. Mowing grass late in the growing season has a negative impact on the quality of silage.
The moisture content of the silage mass should be optimal. For ensiling plants of most species, optimalhumidity is considered to be 65...75%.Ensiling feed with high humidity (75...80%) is accompanied by large losses of nutrients with leaking juice.
Grinding the silage mass significantly affects the quality of the feed, as it promotes the release of cell sap, which contains sugars and nutrients necessary for the normal functioning of lactic acid bacteria. The main silage mass should be crushed into particles of 2...4 cm in size, and green mass with high humidity - 5...10 cm (no more).
Haylage this is food from grasses, cut and dried, crushed and preserved in hermetic towers or trenchesup to humidity 45...55%.
When preparing haylage, food conservation is determined by the physiological dryness of plants, characterized by the absence of moisture in them, necessary for the life of most bacteria. As a result, significantly less organic acids are formed in haylage than in silage, and a larger amount of sugar is retained.
The advantages of haylage over hay and silage are as follows. Losses of nutrients during its preparation amount to 6...10%. In addition, flowers and leaves, which contain large amounts of valuable nutrients, are completely preserved. When using haylage, the mechanization of the preparation and distribution of feed is greatly facilitated. In terms of taste and nutritional properties, haylage is closer to green mass than silage, and livestock eat it more readily. Haylage fresh food, pH 4.8...5.5. Due to the relatively low humidity, it does not freeze in winter.
To obtain highly nutritious haylage, it is recommended to mow grass in earlier phases of the growing season than when making hay: legumes at the beginning of budding, cereals during the booting period, at the beginning of heading.Grass harvesting should be completed before flowering begins..
Haylage is prepared as follows. The grasses are mowed and flattened at the same time (legumes and legume-cereal grass mixtures), withered, picked up from windrows with the green mass crushed, loaded into vehicles, transported to a tower or trench, loaded, compacted and hermetically sealed. In good weather, the grass is left in the swaths for no more than 4 hours. Usually, to wilt the green mass to a moisture content of 45...55%, in good weather it takes 6...7 hours, in cloudy weather without precipitation - about a day.
Root and tuber cropsdivided into root vegetables and tubers. The first include: fodder, sugar and semi-sugar beets, turnips, carrots, rutabaga; to the second potatoes, earthen pear(Jerusalem artichoke). Root tubers are included in the group of succulent feeds. They contain a lot of water (70...90%), little protein (1...2%), about 1% fiber and almost no fat.
The dry matter of root tuber crops is dominated by easily digestible carbohydrates (starch and sugar). The energy nutritional value of 1 kg of dry matter of root tubers and 1 kg of concentrates is approximately the same.
Of all the types of fodder root crops used in our country, the largest share isfor fodder beet. It contains an average of 12% dry matter (variation range 7...25%). Fodder beet is one of the main carbohydrate feeds in the diets of cattle, sheep and partly pigs.
5. Concentrated feed.
The group of concentrated feeds is represented mainly by grains s we feed. They have high nutritional value (1...1.34 feed units per 1 kg of feed).
Grain feeds are divided into 2 groups:
rich in carbohydrates (oats, barley, rye, corn);
rich in protein (legumes peas , lupine, vetch, soybean).
Soybeans contains up to 30 ... 45% protein and is therefore considered the most highly nutritious food.
6. Animal feed.
Feeds of animal origin include dairy, meat and fish feeds, which are characterized by a high content of protein and B vitamins.
Whole milk substitute(CM) is a mixture of high-quality products: dry and fresh skim milk, whey powder, animal and cooking fats, vitamin, mineral and flavor additives. Composition of milk replacer: 80% skimmed milk powder, 15% vegetable lard (hydrogenated vegetable fat) and 5% phosphatide concentrate.
Fish flour one of the best protein feeds, containing up to 60% protein. This product is obtained from food fish and fish waste. Fishmeal is fed to young farm animals, pigs and poultry, and is used to prepare compound feeds and as additives to diets that balance them in protein and minerals.
Meat and meat and bone mealproduced from the carcasses and internal organs of animals unsuitable for human consumption and used for the preparation of feed. Protein content 30...60%.
Feed yeast valuable protein and vitamin feed, an excellent component of compound feed. Feed yeast is produced by meat processing and sulphate-cellulose industries, as well as alcohol factories from waste in the form of a dry product (8...10% moisture).
Food waste (remnants of catering establishments and home kitchens). On average, 5...6 kg of waste corresponds to 1 feed. units Food waste (mixed with other feed) should be used as much as possible for fattening pigs in agricultural enterprises located around major cities And industrial centers. Before feeding, food waste is disinfected, i.e. steamed, and freed from foreign objects.
7. Mineral supplements and vitamin preparations.
Mineral supplements.These include table salt, shells, bone meal, feed phosphate, limestone, sapropel (lake silt), phosphorus-calcium supplements, tricalcium phosphate, feed precipitate, etc. The industry produces special briquettes consisting mainly of table salt with the addition of the necessary microelements.
Vitamin preparations.To meet the vitamin needs of animals, concentrates are added to the feed composition.vitamin A and carotene.Fish oil is obtained from cod liver, adding concentrates of vitamins A and D . Nutritional yeast containing vitamins D 2 and group B, are produced by irradiating a yeast suspension with ultraviolet rays.
- Combined and feed additives.
Compound feed is a complex homogeneous mixture of feed products (grain, bran, animal feed, mineral additives, etc.). Mixing them and introducing biologically complete premixes and additives into the diet makes it possible to increase the efficiency of using natural feed.
Compound feeds are divided into:
full (full);
mixed feed concentrates;
balancing feed additives (BFA);
premixes.
Balancing feed additives(BVD, BMVD, urea concentrate, etc.) are homogeneous mixtures of high-protein feedstuffs and microadditives crushed to the required degree. They are used mainly for the preparation of feed based on grain fodder. BVD and BMVD are introduced into the grain mixture in an amount of 10...30% of its mass.
Premixes mixtures crushed to the desired degree of coarseness h personal substances (mineral feed, amino acids, vitamins, antibiotic And kov, etc.) and fillers used for the enrichment of mixed feed and l co-vitamin supplements.
1) one of the most important production processes in animal husbandry, in which feed of plant and animal origin is used to obtain animal products.
2) Section of animal science (See Animal science) , developing the scientific foundations, methods, and techniques of rational scientific research. g., ensuring their normal growth, development, high productivity, as well as the improvement of existing and the creation of new breeds. On the main problems of the science of coronary spores. and. include: studying the nutritional needs of animals, determining nutritional value feed, establishment of feeding standards, preparation of feed rations, development correct technique and feeding arrangements.
During the period of nomadic farming, the only food for livestock was pasture grass. With the transition to sedentary cattle breeding and the development of agriculture, they gradually began to introduce stabling of animals, prepare food for the winter period, and feed agricultural waste to livestock. With the development of industry and the emergence of industrial centers, the need for livestock products increased sharply. In this regard, more and more attention was paid to the organization of feeding and keeping livestock. Industrial waste from processing agricultural products began to be used for feeding. Under the influence of practical needs, the doctrine of cosmic chemistry began to take shape. and. It developed on the basis of the achievements of biology, physiology, chemistry, physics and other sciences and the generalization of the practical experience of livestock breeders. At the beginning of the 19th century. The doctrine of nutritional value of food began to develop. The German scientist A. Thayer was the first to try to express the need for agriculture in uniform standards. animals in feed. Feeding rates were based on empirical data. From the middle of the 19th century. assessment of the nutritional value of feed and rationing of feeding were based on information about the chemical composition of feed. In the 60s 19th century German scientist E. Wolf proposed a system for evaluating feed and rationing feeding based on digestible substances. Work has been carried out to show the role and importance of various nutrients for animals. The role of protein was first studied by the French scientist F. Magendie (1816). In Russia, studies of the needs of animals for minerals were carried out (1872) by A. Rubets. N. I. Lunin established (1880) the presence in products of substances that were later (1912) called vitamins (See Vitamins) . Qualitative transformations of substances in the body of animals were studied by N.P. Chirvinsky, who proved (1881) the possibility of the formation of fat in the body of animals from carbohydrates. E. A. Bogdanov (1909) showed the possibility of fat formation from feed protein. The research of V.V. Pashutin and his students (late 19th - early 20th centuries) was theoretical basis for studying metabolism in animals. A methodology for taking into account the balance of substances and energy in animals was developed, and the methodology for scientific and economic experiments with animals was improved. All these achievements have made it possible to develop methods for assessing the nutritional value of feed and rationing animal feeding based on productive performance. The German scientist O. Kellner proposed the Starch equivalent as a unit of feed nutritional value , American scientist G. Armeby - Therms, N. Fjord (Denmark) and N. Hanson (Sweden) developed the Scandinavian feed unit (See Feed unit). In the USSR, at the suggestion of E. A. Bogdanov, the Soviet feed unit was adopted. The feed resources of the USSR were studied by M. F. Ivanov, M. I. Dyakov, E. F. Liskun, I. S. Popov. In 1933, the first summary table of the chemical composition and nutritional value of feed in various zones was compiled. The scientific basis of animal feeding has been developed different types, breeds, gender, age, physiological state (pregnancy, lactation, fattening, etc.), direction of use and level of productivity. Based on a generalization of data on the nutritional needs of animals obtained at institutes and experimental stations (1930-35), feed standards (See Feed Standard) for agriculture were determined. animals. Subsequently, these standards were clarified and improved, increasing the number of standardized indicators. Feeding rationing, which makes it possible to control feed consumption and use it most efficiently, has become the basis for planning livestock production.
By the middle of the 20th century. Thanks to the work of scientists from many countries, the concept of a balanced system was formed. and. Requirements have been established for the rational composition of feed rations (See Feed ration) for animals of different species, ages, condition and economic use. The influence of housing conditions and daily routine on the appetite of animals and the palatability of feed has been clarified. The importance of the frequency of feeding and the order of distribution of different feeds was studied. The influence of the physical state of feed (degree of moisture, grinding, etc.) was determined, which made it possible to develop and put into practice new types of feed - grass meal, haylage, granules, etc. The most cost-effective types of livestock feeding by zone were proposed.
The energy assessment of the nutritional value of feed is being studied. The calorie content of feed has been established, which allows feeding to be rationed according to their energy value.
Much attention is paid to the science of K. s. and. pays attention to the study of protein nutrition of animals, the needs of animals for protein, the possibilities of using non-protein nitrogen in feed, the use various means increasing the biological value of protein, the amino acid composition of proteins, the role of amino acids in animal nutrition and methods of balancing diets according to the amino acid composition of feed, mineral nutrition and the importance of macro- and microelements in animal husbandry for various biogeochemical zones and provinces. By establishing the role of vitamins in the animal body and the importance of vitamin nutrition, means have been obtained for the prevention and treatment of many vitamin deficiencies and hypovitaminosis conditions.
In K. s. and. Various stimulants began to be used, which include antibiotics, enzymes, hormones, specific serums, tissue preparations, etc. All these agents affect the body’s metabolism, digestive processes, digestibility and use of nutrients. They accelerate the growth and development of animals, increase their productivity and fertility.
To ensure full-fledged K. s. and. Scientific institutions are developing recipes for complete compound feeds, concentrate feeds, whole milk substitutes, premixes and other additives. The feed industry produces feed mixtures according to these recipes. The chemical industry produces s. and. urea-ammonium salts, synthetic lysine, methionine, tryptophan and other amino acids, vitamins, mineral supplements, preservatives; hydrolysis industry - feed yeast. Old methods of preparing, preserving and storing feed are being improved and new methods are being introduced into production (silage, haylage, chemical canning, accelerated drying of grass by ventilation, briquetting, granulation, etc.), as well as preparing feed for feeding (grinding, chemical treatment, steaming, yeast, etc.). Many processes of foraging, preparation and distribution of feed are mechanized. Resolving many issues of K. s. and. (drawing up feed plans, rations, feed recipes, etc.) is facilitated by the use of modern mathematical methods and electrical computing technology.
In the costs of producing livestock products, the cost of feed makes up the largest part (50-75%), therefore the introduction into practice of scientific achievements and best practices in cattle breeding. and. plays a big role in reducing production costs.
Modern methods of livestock farming on an industrial basis require the development of agricultural methods. g., ensuring optimal flow metabolic processes in animals with an even more rapid increase in their productivity and high feed utilization. Many scientific institutions are conducting research to solve these problems. How academic discipline K. s. and. taught in agriculture and zootechnical institutes and technical schools.
Lit.: Popov I.S., Feeding farm animals, 9th ed., M., 1957; Nehring K., Feeding farm animals and feed products. [transl. from German], M., 1959; Dmitrochenko P. A., Pshenichny P. D., Feeding farm animals, L., 1964; Tomme M.F., Feed USSR. Composition and nutritional value, M., 1964; Popekhina P.S., Feeding pigs, M., 1967; Feeding and keeping sheep, ed. I. V. Khadanovich, M., 1968; Masliev I. T., Feed and feeding of farm poultry, M., 1968; Norms and rations for feeding farm animals, ed. M. F. Tomme, M., 1969; Belekhov G.P. and Chubinskaya A.A., Feeding farm animals, L., 1970; Handbuch der Tierernährung, Bd 1, Hamb.-B., 1969; Crampton E.W., Harris L.E., The Practice of Feeding Farm Animals, trans. from English, M., 1972.
M. F. Tomme.
Big Soviet encyclopedia. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. 1969-1978 .
See what “Feeding farm animals” is in other dictionaries:
FEEDING FARM ANIMALS- 1) one of the most important production processes in living things, in which feed of plant and animal origin is used to obtain live products. 2) Section of animal science, developing scientific. foundations, methods and techniques of rational quantitative analysis. and.,… …
FEEDING FARM ANIMALS- feeding farm animals, manufacturing process in livestock farming, which involves the rational use of feed to obtain livestock products. Includes rationing of feeding, preparation of diets,... ... Veterinary encyclopedic dictionary
The history of the development of the doctrine of feeding is at the same time the history of different views on the merits of feed. Lavoisier was the first to explain the elementary composition of animal and plant tissues; He took their decomposition in the animal body as... ...
The set of morphological, biological and economic properties of an animal that characterize it as a single whole. The external expression of K. s. and. are the external forms of the animal, or Exterior. K. s. and. develops under the influence of...
FATTERING OF FARM ANIMALS- technol. a process that ensures the production of the best quality meat in a shorter time. For fattening they use cr. horn. cattle, pigs, sheep, poultry, rabbits. Economical indicators O. s. and. depend on the species, breed, sex,... ... Agricultural Encyclopedic Dictionary
A set of measures to care for animals, including housing, feeding, creating optimal zoohygienic conditions, and maintaining a daily routine. Depending on the level of intensification of livestock farming and natural economic... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia
Enhanced feeding of animals during the pre-slaughter period in order to obtain the largest amount of meat (See Meat) of the best quality. Cattle, pigs, sheep, poultry, and rabbits are used for fattening. Economic indicators O. s. and. And… … Great Soviet Encyclopedia
In early youth, during the period of greatest growth in horses, cattle and sheep during the first year, and in pigs during the first 8 months, animals are extremely susceptible to: maintenance, feeding and care or general education of them... Encyclopedic Dictionary F.A. Brockhaus and I.A. Ephron
animal anatomy- (from the Greek anatomē dissection, dismemberment), zootomy, the science of the shape and structure of the body of animals; component morphology (the science of the form and structure of an organism in its individual and history development); is inextricably linked with animal physiology.… … Agriculture. Large encyclopedic dictionary
GENERAL MEASURES FOR TREATING ANIMALS IN CASE OF POISONING BY POISONOUS PLANTS- Chapter V GENERAL MEASURES FOR TREATING ANIMALS IN CASE OF POISONING BY POISONOUS PLANTS Treatment of farm animals in case of poisoning by poisonous plants (as in other poisonings) can be carried out in three directions: removal from the body... ... Toxicology of poisonous plants
Books
- Basics of nutrition and feeding of farm animals, Ryadchikov Viktor Georgievich. The basic knowledge is presented, as well as the achievements of world science and practice in the nutrition and feeding of farm animals of an intensive type of productivity. This knowledge is based on understanding...
Feeding - most important factor, influencing the formation of the animal’s body, the development of their desired productive and breeding qualities, and improving the quality of products.
Feeding is central to technological process production of livestock products. In the conditions of intensification of livestock farming and its transfer to an industrial basis, the role of adequate feeding is increasing, which ensures the production of high-quality products while reducing feed costs.
The organization of proper feeding of farm animals is based on knowledge of the needs of animals for various nutrients and minerals, vitamins and the biological value of feed. Based on the data accumulated by zootechnical science, new detailed feeding standards for farm animals have been developed, which take into account their need for 22-30 nutritional elements. Their use makes it possible to increase animal productivity by 8-12% and reduce feed costs per unit of production.
The nutritional value of food or diet is determined by a comprehensive assessment of all indicators of detailed feeding standards. Great importance for complete feeding have proteins, proteins. The vital activity of animals is inextricably linked with the processes of formation and breakdown of protein substances in the body. For the systematic formation of proteins, as well as milk, the animal must receive the required amount of protein in the diet. However, the need for them is often satisfied by no more than 75-80%, which leads to a shortage of products, excessive consumption of feed for its production, and a decrease in reproduction.
The quality of protein mainly depends on the amino acid content. Some amino acids - lysine, tryptophan, histidine, leucine, isoleucine, phenylallanine, methionine, valine, arginine - are extremely important for animals and their absence in the diet, especially of pigs and poultry, causes a sharp decline animal productivity, leads to metabolic disorders. Such amino acids are called essential.
In ruminants, essential amino acids are synthesized by microorganisms in the forestomach, so they react to the quality of proteins to a lesser extent than animals with a single-chamber stomach, including poultry. It is advisable to control the diets of highly productive cows in terms of their supply of methionine, lysine and tryptophan.
Carbohydrates- the main component of the dry matter of plant feed and the main source of energy for animals. The carbohydrate nutritional value of feeds and diets is characterized by the content of sugars, starch and fiber. The sugar-protein ratio is of great importance for balancing diets. It shows how many parts of sugar there are for one part of digestible protein. For dairy cattle, the optimal ratio is 0.8-1.0, i.e. the diet should contain 80-100 g of sugar for every 100 g of digestible protein.
The lipid-fat nutritional value of feed is essential in animal feeding. The role of fat is not limited to its energy value. It is included as a structural material in the protoplasm of cells. Individual fatty acids - arachidic and linolenic - are vital for normal metabolic processes, growth and development of animals. If there is a lack of fat in feed, animals usually also experience a lack of fat-soluble vitamins A, B, E, K. Therefore, the new standards reflect the need of animals for fat.
Meaning minerals in the nutrition of farm animals is extremely high, although they have no energy value. This is explained by the large role that minerals play in all metabolic processes occurring in the body. The mineral nutritional value of feeds and diets is characterized by the content of macro- and microelements in them. The reaction of diet ash should be slightly alkaline. It means that alkaline elements(sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium) prevail over acidic ones (phosphorus, sulfur, chlorine). The most important microelements are iron, copper, zinc, manganese, cobalt, and iodine. The need for them is taken into account in detailed standards.
Vitamins necessary to maintain the normal functioning of the body and the growth of animals, have a high biological activity, act as catalysts in metabolic processes, helping to improve the use of nutrients in diets. A lack of even one vitamin in the diet causes functional disorders in metabolism and decreased animal productivity.
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1.Evaluation of animals by exterior and constitution.
The exterior of an animal is its appearance, external forms as a whole and the characteristics of individual parts of the body (statistics). The exterior determines the type of constitution, breed of animals, intrabreed types, individual body features, direction of productivity (meat, lard, dairy, wool, etc.), sex and suitability of animals for industrial technology.
The shape of the udder, the size and location of the teats are important external indicators of the suitability of cows for machine milking. The most desirable are widely spaced, well developed nipples. Cows with goat udders and pear-shaped teats are not suitable for machine milking.
The most important features characterizing the exterior of the animal are the following: head, neck, withers, chest, back, lower back, rear third of the body, limbs, udder, external genitalia. The development of skin, muscles and bones is assessed. Descriptions of articles begin with the head and end with the limbs. Much attention is paid to physique flaws.
animal constitutions. The constitution of animals is a set of morphological and physiological characteristics of an animal associated with the direction of productivity and the ability to respond in a certain way to environmental influences.
Types of constitution.
Strong type of constitution characterized good development skin, musculature, bone structure and strong physique.
Animals of dense constitution They have elastic, dense skin, poorly developed connective tissue, good muscles, strong bones and a harmonious physique.
Rough type of constitution characterized by thick skin, underdeveloped subcutaneous connective tissue, voluminous muscles and massive bones.
Animals have a delicate constitution the skin is thin and elastic, subcutaneous connective tissue and the muscles are not voluminous, the skeleton is light.
Animals have a loose constitution thick, pasty skin, under which there is highly developed connective tissue. The muscles are bulky, the bones are not strong enough.
The constitution determines the health and productive qualities of animals: early maturity, ability to fatten, fertility, nature of productivity, quality of offspring, life expectancy, etc.
Animals with a strong and dense constitution are characterized by increased vitality, good health and resistance to diseases. They ripen early and fatten well, are highly fertile, productive, produce valuable offspring, and are capable of long-term economic use.
Animals with a rough constitution are late-ripening, poorly fattened, have high fertility, but are unproductive and do not produce high-quality offspring. They are disease-resistant and long-lived, but keeping them on the farm for a long time is not economically justified.
Animals of delicate constitution have low fertility, rather high, but rapidly decreasing productivity. Their offspring are characterized by reduced viability; the animals leave the herd early.
Animals with a loose constitution are distinguished by high meat productivity, are early maturing and well-fed, and have the ability to deposit large amounts of fat under the skin, in the muscles and on internal organs. Milk and wool productivity in animals of this type is not sufficiently developed.
The main factors determining the constitutional types of animals are heredity, feeding and housing conditions, training, crossing, selection, etc.
2.Complete feeding of agricultural crops. Animals.
Feeding of farm animals should be carried out in accordance with current zootechnical standards, taking into account the species, age, productivity, fatness and physiological state. In providing high level nutrient metabolism and complex processes associated with animal performance, energy plays an important role (65%). The level of energy nutrition is determined taking into account energy costs for maintaining life and for production. Lack of energy nutrition leads to low absorption of feed nutrients, ketosis of dairy cows, ewes, exhaustion of the whole body with subsequent undesirable consequences. Recently, the problem of protein nutrition has become especially acute, given the urgent need to increase animal productivity and major changes in feeding technology and feed production. Protein has become one of the limiting factors in the livestock production system. The lack of protein in the diet or its inferiority in amino acid composition has a detrimental effect on the reproductive function of animals, inferior offspring are born, the body's resistance decreases, the incidence of animal diseases increases, metabolism is disrupted, productivity decreases, and their performance deteriorates. general state. The level of lipid nutrition significantly affects the growth and development of animals. Feed fat is not only a source of energy and a material for the formation of fat in the body of animals, it is essential for the normal absorption and transportation of carotene and fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, K. Fat deficiency leads to dermatitis, liver and kidney diseases, and dysfunction of reproduction. The optimal fat content in the diet of cows should be 70% of that excreted in milk, for young cattle - 3-5, for pigs - 2-4, for poultry - 3-8% of the weight of concentrated feed. Feed carbohydrates are not only a source of energy, they are involved in the formation of body fat and milk.
An imbalance of sugar and starch in the diet leads to a disruption in protein-fat metabolism, which leads to an increase in the level of ketone bodies in the body and the development of acidosis.
The optimal level of fiber in the dry matter of the diet should be: for cows - 18-28, young animals - 16-24, calves - 6-12, for sheep - 15-25, for pigs - 4-12, for poultry - 3-6% . In addition to organic substances that have a certain nutritional value, animal diets must be provided with sufficient quantities and in appropriate proportions of vitamins, macro- and microelements. For a lack of macro- and microelements, metabolism is disrupted, rickets, osteodystrophy, parakeratosis, anemia and many other diseases develop.
Vitamins are needed to maintain normal functioning of the body and increase its resistance against various diseases. They participate in the metabolism of proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, minerals, and also provide the functions of the reproductive system, intrauterine development, biochemical processes of oxidation and reduction; promote the synthesis of a number of amino acids and better utilization of feed nutrients. A lack of one of the vitamins in the diet leads to functional disorders in metabolism and decreased animal productivity. 3. Patterns of individual development of animals
Knowledge of the individual development of an organism is necessary, first of all, because in the process of growth and development an animal acquires not only breed and species characteristics, but also peculiarities of constitution, exterior, and productivity inherent only to it. In ontogenesis, hereditary continuity and variability of the characteristics of the parents are carried out; it occurs as a result of the action of internal factors of the body and environmental conditions.
Under height understand the process of increasing the size of an organism and its mass, which occurs due to the accumulation of active, mainly protein, substances in it. Growth is accompanied not only by an increase in mass, but also by a change in body proportions, which determines new qualities.
Under development animals understand the qualitative changes that occur from the moment of cell fertilization to the adult state of the organism.
The ontogenesis of farm animals is characterized by the following basic patterns: periodicity of growth and development; unevenness of these processes at all age periods; rhythmicity.
In domestic mammals, embryonic and postembryonic development is clearly distinguishable, occurring after birth. Each of these stages can be divided into several periods. Thus, embryonic development is divided into: embryonic and fertile periods.
Germinal period begins with the formation of the embryo and lasts until the formation of the fetus (with the rudiments of all organs).
Fetal period ends with the birth of an animal.
Postembryonic period begins with the moment of birth and ends with the death of the animal. There are five periods in postembryonic development:
IN neonatal period the body adapts to living conditions outside the mother’s body, the formation of many functions: hematopoiesis, thermoregulation, urination and others. The main food during this period is first colostrum, and then mother's milk. The duration of the newborn period is 2 – 3 weeks.
Milk period in cattle it lasts 6 months, in lambs 3.5–4 months, in foals 6-8 months. The main food is mother's milk, along with this, the young animals gradually become accustomed to plant foods.
IN puberty In animals, sexual functions develop. In cattle, puberty occurs at 6–9 months, in sheep and goats at 6–8 months, in pigs at 4–5 months and in mares at 12–18 months.
Period of physiological maturity characterized by the flourishing of all functions: maximum productivity, highest productive ability. In cattle it occurs between 5 and 10 years of age, in sheep from 2 to 6 years, in pigs from 2 to 5 years.
IN aging period all functions are lost. Reproductive capacity and productivity decrease.
