Planet Earth is amazing and unique. It consists of several shells: atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, lithosphere, pyrosphere and centrosphere. Unlike other planets, the Earth is inhabited by plants, animals, people, microorganisms, etc. All living organisms form the biosphere. This shell includes part of the atmosphere and lithosphere, as well as the entire hydrosphere. In this article we will consider what the biosphere is, what its components and functions are.

Definition of the concept

Despite the fact that today almost everyone knows what the biosphere is, the definition of this concept was introduced into scientific circulation only in 1875 by the Austrian geologist Eduard Suess (work “The Face of the Earth”). However, for the next half century this term was used only in narrow circles.

In 1926, the famous Russian scientist V.I. Vernadsky published the book “Biosphere”. In this work, he substantiated the role of living organisms in geological processes. It was V.I. Vernadsky who first determined what the biosphere is and how it differs from other shells of the Earth. He showed her dynamic active system, inhabited and governed by living beings.

Today in science there is only one generally accepted definition of the concept “biosphere”. This is the shell of planet Earth, which is inhabited by living organisms. The biosphere occupies a special place in relation to other geospheres. This is due to the fact that only within the boundaries of this shell is the geological activity of all living beings manifested.

Boundaries of the biosphere

The biosphere covers the upper region (about 7.5 km) of the lithosphere, the lower boundary of the atmosphere (15-20 km) and the entire hydrosphere.

Lithosphere - hard shell of our planet. It covers the entire earth's crust and part of the upper mantle. Most living organisms are found in the soil at a depth of up to 1 m. However, some bacteria can penetrate deep into the lithosphere (up to 4 km).

Hydrosphere is the watery shell of planet Earth. It represents the totality of all oceans, seas, rivers, lakes and other bodies of water. This shell is completely developed and populated by living organisms. Most of them live at depths of up to 200 m. However, some species live even at the bottom of the World Ocean (about 12 km).

The atmosphere is the gaseous shell of our planet. It consists of nitrogen, oxygen, ozone and carbon dioxide. The biosphere includes only the lowest layers of the atmosphere. This is due to the fact that individual species insects and birds can rise to a height of up to 5 km above the earth's surface.

Components of the biosphere

The biosphere consists of 4 components (classification proposed by V.I. Vernadsky):

• Living matter. Its amount is approximately 0.25% of the mass of the biosphere. This substance represents the totality of all living organisms on the planet. They are grouped into 4 kingdoms: bacteria, plants, fungi and animals. Living matter is characterized by significant energy, it is characterized by mobility and continuous alternation of generations, due to which all its components are constantly renewed.
• Biogenic substance. This is everything that is formed during the life of organisms and consists of animal and plant residues (limestones, oil, atmospheric gases, peat, etc.). All biogenic components serve as a powerful source of energy.
• Inert substance. These are elements in the formation of which living beings and microorganisms do not take part (rocks, lava, etc.).
• Bioinert substance. These are components of the biosphere that are created through the joint activity of living organisms and abiogenic processes (soil, clay, sedimentary rocks, weathering crust, water, etc.).

Features and functions of the biosphere

The biosphere, like other important natural systems, has a number of functions. Let's look at the most important of them.

• Integrity. The biosphere is a centralized system, the main element of which is living matter. All its components are closely interconnected and constantly interact. As a result, a change in one element leads to a restructuring of the entire system.
• Self-regulation. The biosphere is characterized by a process called homeostasis. It allows the system to independently maintain and regulate its state.
• Sustainability. The capacity of the biosphere under influence external factors maintain its properties and characteristics. This feature allows the system to maintain its Current state and return to its original position after shocks.

One of the main features and characteristics of the biosphere is diversity. Thanks to the existence of various biological species There is always an atmosphere of competition in the system, which provides protection from outside influences.

Functions of living matter

Today science knows for sure what the biosphere is. In biology it main component- living matter - is the most important category. Let us consider the functions of this system-forming element of the biosphere.

• Gas. This function is closely related to the process of metabolism and respiration. During these gas reactions, oxygen, carbon dioxide, etc. are absorbed and released. Thanks to this function, the modern composition of air was formed.
• Energy. This function is based on the process of photosynthesis - the absorption of solar energy by living matter and its transmission.
• Redox. This function is to change chemical properties substances that contain atoms with different levels oxidation. Such reactions are the basis of biological metabolism.
• Destruction function. This is the process of decomposition of organisms into mineral substances after they die.
• Concentration. This is the process of accumulation and movement of atoms.

The meaning of living matter

• Accumulation of solar energy and its transformation (into chemical, mechanical, thermal, electrical, etc.).
• The formation of most minerals and rocks is the result of the vital activity of living organisms.
• Accumulation chemical elements. Living organisms accumulate important components (iron, magnesium, copper, sodium) in the tissues of their bodies and in the environment.
• The cycle of most chemical elements occurs through the biosphere.
• Huge influence on the composition of the soil, atmosphere, and hydrosphere.
• Some chemical components and compounds can only exist in living organisms.

protective function pain.

How is pain classified?

there may be pain acute And chronic.

there may be pain physiological And pathological.

IV. By somatic And visceral superficial And deep(Fig. 162).

.

early And late pain.

Clinical manifestations CRPS

The pain syndrome in CRPS is neuropathic pain in nature, which is represented by two main components: spontaneous (stimulus-independent) pain and evoked (stimulus-dependent) hyperalgesia.

Spontaneous pain

Spontaneous pain is divided into two types: sympathetically independent pain and sympathetically maintained pain. Sympathetic independent pain develops as a result of damage to a peripheral nerve, usually has a shooting, lancinating nature and disappears or significantly regresses after local anesthetic blockade of the damaged peripheral nerve or affected area of ​​skin. Sympathetically supported pain is usually burning in nature and can be combined with changes in blood flow, thermoregulation and sweating, movement disorders(increase muscle tone, dystonia, increased physiological tremor), trophic changes in the skin, its appendages, subcutaneous tissues, fascia and bones and regresses after sympathetic blockade.

Pain is an absolute hallmark for diagnosing CRPS. It occurs as a result of a damaging effect, usually involving the tissues of the limb, but in its nature, severity and prevalence exceeds the initiating traumatic effect. Pain syndrome can be represented by two characteristic types: burning pain and aching pain, which occur with equal frequency. These two types differ in their verbal characteristics: burning pain is felt in the form of a burning sensation, often superficial, of medium to high intensity, clearly described by the patient; aching pain is pain of an aching, aching, pulling nature, more often felt as deep, has an average or below average level of intensity, patients cannot give a clear description of it. These two types of pain also differ in the duration of manifestation; for burning pains, in a third of cases, periods of more than 6 months were noted, and in a third, their transformation into aching pain was noted; primary aching pain after 6 months were not noted. More than three quarters of patients have spontaneous constant pain. Pain often immediately follows an injury that is not usually associated with significant nerve damage. It may follow bone fracture, soft tissue injury, or immobilization due to visceral pathology. Pain usually occurs within the first month after exposure to the provoking factor.

Hyperalgesia

The second component of neuropathic pain is hyperalgesia. Based on localization, hyperalgesia is divided into primary and secondary. Primary hyperalgesia is localized in the zone of innervation of the damaged nerve or in the zone of tissue damage; secondary hyperalgesia has a wider distribution, far beyond the zone of tissue damage or the zone of innervation of the damaged nerve.

Primary hyperalgesia is associated with the site of tissue damage and occurs mainly in response to irritation of peripheral nociceptors sensitized as a result of damage. Nociceptors become sensitive due to biologically active substances released or synthesized at the site of damage. These substances are: serotonin, histamine, neuroactive peptides (substance P and calcitonin gene-related peptide), kinins, bradykinin, as well as products of arachidonic acid metabolism (prostaglandins and leukotrienes) and cytokines. The process also involves a category of nociceptors called “dormant” nociceptors, which are normally inactive but are activated following tissue damage. Due to this activation, afferent stimulation of neurons increases posterior horn spinal cord, which is the basis for the development of secondary hyperalgesia.

Increased afferent stimulation from sensitized and activated dormant nociceptors exceeds the pain threshold and increases excitability through the release of activating amino acids (aspartate and glutamate). sensory neurons posterior horn, with the development of central sensitization. Due to increased excitability of sensory neurons posterior horns spinal cord associated with the zone of innervation of the damaged nerve, sensitization of nearby intact neurons occurs with expansion of the receptive zone. In this regard, irritation of intact sensory fibers that innervate the area surrounding the damage healthy tissue, causes activation of secondary sensitized neurons, which manifests itself as pain secondary hyperalgesia. Sensitization of dorsal horn neurons leads to a decrease in the pain threshold and the development of allodynia, i.e. emergence pain to irritation that is not normally accompanied by them (for example, tactile). Changes in the excitability of the central parts of the nociceptive system associated with the development of secondary hyperalgesia and allodynia are described by the term “central sensitization”.

Depending on the type of stimulus that caused it, hyperalgesia can be thermal, cold, mechanical and chemical. Primary and secondary hyperalgesia are heterogeneous. Primary hyperalgesia is represented by three types: thermal, mechanical and chemical, and secondary hyperalgesia by two types: mechanical and cold.

Thermal hyperalgesia. It is known that thermal hyperalgesia is a leading symptom of pain associated with inflammation. This symptom is also observed with neuropathy, but always only in the area of ​​tissue damage (primary hyperalgesia).

Mechanical hyperalgesia. Mechanical hyperalgesia is usually divided into two types: dynamic, associated with dynamic stimulation, and static, associated with static stimulation.

Dynamic hyperalgesia can be caused by a light sliding touch and, depending on the method of induction, is divided into two subtypes. The first is allodynia, or hyperalgesia, associated with irritation with a brush (brush hyperalgesia), light touch with horsehair, a ball of cotton wool, etc. The second subtype is hyperalgesia to a needle prick. Static hyperalgesia can be caused by mild blunt pressure and tapping.

Dynamic hyperalgesia is observed in the zone of primary and secondary hyperalgesia. Cold hyperalgesia occurs when the affected area is gradually cooled and is often described by patients as a burning pain. The types of secondary hyperalgesia commonly studied clinically are allodynia, needlestick hyperalgesia, and cold hyperalgesia. Mechanical and thermal hyperalgesia occurs in 70-80% of patients with CRPS. The simplest diagnosis mechanical allodynia is tactile stimulation, which can also be produced with a soft brush. To diagnose temperature allodynia, heat and cold tests are used, test tubes with water are used: for a heat test, the water temperature is about 40ｰC, for a cold test it is 1015ｰC. The sample is considered positive if, in response to this temperature effect, unpleasant feeling or pain. Cold hyperesthesia occurs in CRPS in half of the cases, and heat hyperesthesia in a quarter. Pain that occurs with movement in the affected limb is usually due to mechanical allodynia. The division of allodynia and hyperalgesia is largely arbitrary.

Conditional-specific tests

Sympathetic blockade. Relief of pain after sympathetic blockade is a criterion for sympathetically caused pain.

Skin temperature test

Changes in skin temperature are caused by the characteristics of regional blood flow, which is associated with sympathetic activity. A difference in skin temperature of more than 1ｰC in symmetrical areas between the affected and healthy limbs indicates sympathetic dysfunction (hyper- or hypoactivity). The study should be carried out in a room with room temperature (200C), with the patient in a quiet position and after acclimatization; The measurement must be carried out by non-contact thermometry or thermography. The result of several repeated measurements is evaluated.

Study of sudomotor activity

Resting Sweating Study RSO and Quantitative Sudomotor Axon Reflex Test (QSART)

The method allows you to measure quantitative indicators of sweating function. Spontaneous, normal sweating and sudomotor activity induced by acetylcholine iontophoresis are studied.

Spontaneous sweating is measured at the hypothenar, forearm, calf and foot, with mean sweat rates of 0.54 (0.201.02), 0.09 (0.040.15), 0.11 (0.060.56) and 0.14 (0.030.56). ) ml/cm2 respectively. The difference is considered significant when the asymmetry reaches 40%.

Iontophoresis of 10% acetylcholine induces a somatosympathetic response associated with stimulation of somatic afferents and sympathetic efferents (QSART). The somatosympathetic response is not registered in healthy people. On average, this response can be registered in 75% of patients with sympathetically supported pain. The somatosympathetic response has a latency of about 0.1–0.2 min and is clearly distinguishable from the response to stimulation of the postganglionic axon, the latency of which exceeds 0.5 min (Ph. Low et al., 1983; Ph. Low, 1993). A response with an ultrashort latency period (0.2 min) is associated with the axon reflex and is a sign of sympathetic dysfunction.

Evoked cutaneous sympathetic potential (ECSP) method

The method is based on recording the galvanic skin response (GSR) in response to electrical stimulation. The resulting 4 averaged responses are described as evoked cutaneous sympathetic potentials (ESPs). Latent periods (LP) and amplitude of VCSP are assessed. In CRPS, there is an increase in LA and a decrease in the amplitude of components on the affected limb compared to the healthy one.

Non-specific tests

X-ray of bones

X-ray examination of bones allows us to identify foci of small spotted osteoporosis (Sudek's atrophy), which differ from osteoporosis caused by immobilization of the limb, being more pronounced in nature and having a shorter period of development. As the disease progresses, osteoporosis becomes more diffuse.

Three-phase bone scintigraphy

Radioisotope scintigraphy using 90Tc can show an increase in blood flow in the affected limb (Kozin et al., 1976), however, recent studies have shown that these changes are not specific to CRPS and this diagnostic method needs to be reconsidered (Wilson et al., 1996).

Somatosensory evoked potentials (SSEPs)

The study of SSEP makes it possible to identify insufficiency of afferentation in the fast-conducting nociceptive system associated with damage to the peripheral nerve, and the resulting sensitization of the slow-conducting system, as well as the mediobasal limbic structures of the brain (N.N. Yakhno, A.V. Novikov, 1998), but these SSEP changes are nonspecific. Sensitization is a term reflecting the phenomenon of persistent depolarization cell membranes, which is based on a change in the activity of NMDA (N-methyl, D-aspartate) receptors and which is manifested by a violation of the harmonious relationship between the nociceptive and antinociceptive systems in the form of a decrease in the pain threshold. Similar changes were obtained as a result of a study of SSEP in patients with compression-ischemic radiculopathy caused by herniated intervertebral discs (N.N. Yakhno, M.A. Bolgov, 1999). Our research and data from N.N. Yakhno and M.A. Bolgova allow us to assert that chronic pain in case of injury peripheral nerves occurs when sensitization of the central nervous system develops.

Treatment

The main principle of treatment should be complex therapy, influencing the central and peripheral components of pathogenesis and carried out taking into account the stage of the disease.

Treatment of pain and hyperalgesia

Knowledge of the mechanisms that underlie the development of symptoms of neuropathic pain allows, using clinical examination data with assessment of various types of sensory disorders, to develop a pathophysiologically based treatment strategy. Only when the mechanisms of development of neuropathic pain syndrome in each specific case are established can we expect positive results treatment. Accurate diagnosis of pathophysiological mechanisms allows for adequate and specific therapy. However, basing diagnosis on analysis clinical symptoms However, it must be remembered that there is no single symptom associated with any specific mechanism. An increase in the number of sodium channels with an increase in the density of their location on the membrane of primary nociceptors and their redistribution causes the development of spontaneous pain and paresthesia. IN in this case To treat spontaneous pain, sodium channel blockers are used, which, however, do not have a specific and selective effect and cause side effects from the cardiovascular and central nervous systems. nervous system. For the treatment of spontaneous pain, the following are used: anticonvulsants (carbamazepine 400-600 mg/day, clonazepam 46 mg/day, lamotrigine 25-100 mg/day), local anesthetics(lidocaine solution 2% for application to the affected limb). Central sensitization is characterized by the development of secondary hyperalgesia, which is associated with activation of NMDA receptors. Blockade of NMDA receptors is achieved by using their direct antagonists: ketamine up to 500 mg/day, dextramethorphan 3090 mg/day, amantadine 50-150 mg/day. For prevention side effects During therapy with NMDA receptor antagonists (psychotic reactions, hypersalivation), benzodiazepine derivatives and anticholinergics are prescribed.

Peripheral sensitization is manifested by primary hyperalgesia, spontaneous pain, which is based on the activation of calcium channels that are insensitive to tetrodotoxin, the release of neurokinin-1 and the reaction of neurogenic inflammation associated with the release of substance P. The effect on these mechanisms is limited only by the use of capsaicin, active substance contained in red hot pepper(chili), which depletes the supply of substance P in the terminals of sensory fibers. Tetrodone-insensitive calcium channel blockers and neurokinin-1 receptor antagonists are under development.

An increase in the number of a-adrenergic receptors on the membranes of primary afferents and the sprouting of the central terminals of sympathetic fibers in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord cause the development of sympathetically caused pain, for the treatment of which a-adrenergic blockers (phentolamine, guanethidine, prazosin) are used.

An increase in the conduction of nociceptive impulses in the central nervous system, developing against the background of a decrease in inhibitory influences associated with central descending mechanisms and with inhibitory mechanisms at the level of the dorsal horn, causes the development of spontaneous pain and hyperalgesia. Opiates are used to activate inhibitory mechanisms at the level of the dorsal horn.

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are also successfully used to relieve pain. Nurofen Plus has a pronounced analgesic effect, which contains ibuprofen, which has an analgesic effect, and codeine, which has a general analgesic effect.

Tricyclic antidepressants and antidepressants, serotonin reuptake inhibitors, by inhibiting the reuptake of serotonin at CNS synapses, enhance descending (serotonergic) inhibitory effects on 5HT receptors at the level of the dorsal horn of the spinal cord. Amitriptyline is prescribed up to 75 mg/day, fluoxetine 2040 mg/day.

Treatment of vegetative-trophic disorders

Adrenergic blockers, calcium blockers, antihistamines, and also carry out symptomatic therapy (diuretics, vasoactive drugs, venotonics, metabolic therapy).

For the treatment of contracture, it is justified to prescribe glucocorticoids (prednisolone) in a short course, starting dose of 60 mg/day.

Thus, treatment of chronic neuropathic pain should not be carried out empirically, but should be clearly focused on the known mechanisms of the development of pain, hypersensitivity and autonomic-trophic disorders. It is quite natural that treatment cannot be limited to only influencing the pathophysiological mechanisms of pain and hyperalgesia, but must include the entire spectrum therapeutic methods used in the treatment of chronic pain syndromes. It must be remembered that the more effective the treatment of pain and hyperalgesia, the sooner it is possible to begin physiotherapeutic, psychotherapeutic and behavioral rehabilitation aimed at restoring the quality of life of patients.

What is pain? How is it different from other types of sensitivity?

Pain is an unpleasant sensory and emotional sensation associated with threat or tissue damage itself. Features of pain as a type of sensitivity: 1. Pain provides little information about the surrounding world, but informs about the danger that may arise or has already arisen as a result of the action of damaging factors - protective function of pain.

2. Unlike other types of sensitivity to pain, adaptation does not develop. In this regard, pain can be the cause of suffering for the patient.

3. Pain is accompanied by complex emotional, autonomic and motor reactions.

4. Pain may be a pathogenetic mechanism for the development of Generalized pathological processes, in particular shock.

How is pain classified?

I. According to clinical characteristics(subjective sensations) pain can be sharp and dull, localized and diffuse, have the character of tingling, tingling, heat, etc.

II. Depending on the duration of pain there may be pain acute And chronic. Acute pain quickly passes after the cessation of the painful stimuli, while chronic pain is long-lasting, causing suffering to the patient.

III. According to importance for the body there may be pain physiological And pathological. Physiological pain has a protective value. It signals about damage or its possibility, promotes the inclusion of certain behavioral reactions aimed at eliminating damage, and limits the functions of the affected organ. Pathological pain does not have a signaling function; it becomes a mechanism for disrupting vital functions, including the brain, and leads to functional disorders different organs and systems.

IV. By development mechanisms are distinguished somatic And visceral pain. Somatic pain is divided into superficial And deep(Fig. 162).

. What is somatic superficial pain? What types is it divided into?

Somatic superficial pain is pain that originates in the skin. There are two types of it: early And late pain.

If applied strongly mechanical injury, then an acute, sharp, well-localized pain immediately occurs, which quickly passes after completion of the action pathogenic factor- this is the so-called early pain.

After a certain time (0.5-1 s) late pain occurs. This is a dull, aching, diffuse pain. It continues for some time after the action of the pathogenic factor has ceased.

News and society

A tabloid is a newspaper. How is it different from other publications?

March 5, 2015

Nowadays you can often hear the word “tabloid”. Many of us define it in our own way or have a concept about it that is far from reality. Everyone should familiarize themselves with it, especially those who have decided to devote themselves to journalism.

A tabloid is a newspaper that differs from its counterparts in a special type of layout. To understand this issue, it is worth taking a closer look at the features of the publication.

Characteristics of tabloids

To distinguish a tabloid from other publications, it is worth paying attention to the following features of its layout, content and design:

• The option of printing information on the usual A2 sheet has been eliminated. To create tabloids, a product with half the size is used, that is, A3. This layout option allows users to comfortably read the newspaper anywhere, even in transport, thanks to the ability to freely turn pages.

• A tabloid is a newspaper that is created with a lot of illustrations. Their peculiarity is the absence of a traditional form. At the same time, images often take up space in which text should be located.
• The tabloid articles are small in volume, which allows the reader to get acquainted with useful information in a short time. This is a convenient option, since the text does not contain unnecessary information.
• Headings are catchy and in large font.
• During the layout process, various colors are actively used, including to highlight text. You can attract the reader’s attention if you place individual parts of the article that are white on a colored or black background. This technology is used for tabloids.

Having familiarized yourself with these layout features, you can understand how a tabloid newspaper differs from other types of publications. IN Everyday life this does not matter, but is quite important when implementing professional activity, especially if it involves journalism or the use of print.

Is it possible to confuse a tabloid with other newspapers?

Some researchers mistakenly believe that a clear sign tabloid is the presence of erotic photographs in it. Of course, illustrations of this direction may be present. But it can't be called prerequisite or their distinctive feature, after all, a tabloid is a newspaper. Most likely, the presence of erotica will indicate the tabloid or “yellow” nature of the press.

In this case, it is worth noting that a large number of tabloid publications do have a tabloid format. For this reason, there is a certain confusion of concepts. After all, it turns out that this type of layout is used not only for tabloids, but also for the purpose of designing the content of any publication. Consequently, most "yellow" newspapers are tabloids in their own way. appearance. This results in readers being unable to distinguish different kinds publications from each other.

There are often situations when tabloid publications use printing on A2 sheets. But there are also the opposite cases, when serious Russian tabloids use other types of layouts in order to attract the attention of users and deviate from the standard options.

What should you remember?

Readers should pay attention to the fact that most often a tabloid is an unreliable source of information. Serious publications that have proven themselves are more trustworthy than their counterparts, and this is understandable. But still, tabloids are more reliable than the yellow press, so it’s worth learning to distinguish between these two types of newspapers. As you can understand, this will not be difficult for the user.

Source: fb.ru

Current

Miscellaneous
Miscellaneous

The family of bowed string instruments includes four varieties - violin, viola, cello and double bass. And if the violin is considered the most popular representative of this family, then the sound of the cello is recognized as the most beautiful and pleasant for the listener.

Cello is an instrument with the widest tonal and dynamic range; it is larger than the viola, but smaller than the double bass. In addition, she is incredibly popular among classical and avant-garde musicians. IN Muzline online store: https://muzline.ua/vyolonchely/ student and professional models are presented, which can be purchased with delivery throughout Ukraine.

When and how did the cello appear?

All instruments of the bowed string family have the same design and principle of sound production, and this is not at all surprising, since all of them, the small violin and the huge double bass, have a common ancestor - the Baroque viol.

Cello to a much greater extent than other instruments, has preserved external signs its ancestor - dimensions, body shape, installation method, playing technique. The only things that have changed are the proportions of the instrument, the number of strings and the shape of the bow. In addition, the frets were removed from the neck of the viol and as a result it became narrower and more convenient for the performer.

If the old viols were rather bulky, clumsy and quiet, the new cello revealed amazing virtuoso and expressive potential.

When and how did the most first cello unknown for sure. The process of transformation of the viol was long, it took several decades; it is known that the cello entered the symphony orchestra in the mid-18th century and established itself in it as a performer of leading and accompanying parts with the widest tonal range.

Character traits

Cello differs from other bowed string instruments primarily in the size of the body and the nature of the sound. If the violin has a light, bright and piercing timbre, then the sound of the cello in tonal and timbre terms intersects with the sound of the viola and double bass, but has a much wider range. Its timbre is characterized by density and velvety, melodiousness and beautiful colors, which change depending on the technique of sound production. It also stands out in the way it is played - like other bowed string instruments, the cello is played with a bow, which is pressed along the strings parallel to the ground. In addition, it can be played with fingers, like a double bass. The difference is that the violin and viola are held on the shoulder, pressed by the chin, while the cello is placed on the spire and held between the knees.

Tell us about Levontia’s family, how is it different from other families?

From the story of a horse with a pink mane.

• Levontius's family was not a rich family. The children did not have a mother. There was only father and grandmother. Father always became violent and destroyed furniture when Vitka came and remembered his late mother. The next morning Levontius was repairing all the furniture.
• Levontia's family differed from the families of economic and serious Siberians in their chaotic life. Levontiy was not a peasant, like the boy’s grandfather, but was a worker, harvesting badog for the factory. He drank after his payday, spent money recklessly and, when drunk, beat his wife and children, who ran away and hid in the neighbors. Levontius did not care about raising the children, and they grew up like street children and ate as they had to.
• Levontius's family was large, careless, they lived recklessly, without bothering themselves; their house stood by itself, “...and nothing prevented him from looking at the white light through the somehow glazed windows - no fence, no gates, no frames, no shutters,” since there were none at all. On payday the whole family walked, and 3-4 days later the housewife again walked around the village and borrowed money, flour, and potatoes until payday.