From the article the reader learns what shows general analysis blood, in what cases it is prescribed, what indicators include a general analysis. How to prepare for the test procedure, and what factors may influence the results. Find out normal values and how they change when various states and diseases of the body.
Blood testing is an important step in examination and diagnosis. The hematopoietic organs are susceptible to physiological and pathological influences. They change the blood picture.
As a result, the general analysis (GCA) is the most popular analysis method, which helps the doctor judge general condition body. For a detailed examination, in addition to OAC, they prescribe biochemical analysis And general research urine (OAM). About what it shows general Analysis of urine, a separate article has already been written. If anyone is interested, you can read it.
What does a general blood test show, detailed, main indicators
Let's find out what a general blood test shows and why it is taken. General hematological blood test is an important diagnostic criterion that reflects the answer hematopoietic system on the effect of physiological and pathological factors.
UAC has of great importance in establishing a diagnosis, especially in diseases of the hematopoietic organs. The UAC covers the study of the following indicators:
- hemoglobin (Hb) level
- red blood cells
- leukocytes
- platelets
- color index
- leukoformula calculation
- erythrocyte sedimentation rate
If necessary, clotting time and bleeding duration are examined. In many laboratories, analysis is carried out on hematology automatic analyzers. They immediately determine up to 36 parameters.
Hemoglobin, functions and clinical significance
Hb - blood pigment, is the core component of the erythrocyte. Its role is to transport O2 from the lungs to organs, tissues and remove carbon dioxide.
The hemoglobin level performs the main function in the diagnosis of anemia of various etiologies. At the same time, his performance decreases.
An increase in Hb concentration occurs with erythremia, symptomatic erythrocytosis, congenital heart defect, cardiopulmonary failure. An increase in Hb is combined with an increase in the number of red blood cells.
With acute blood loss, there is a significant decrease in Hb to 50 g/l. The minimum pigment content in the blood compatible with life is 10 g/l.
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Red blood cells, physiological role in the body
Red blood cells occupy the main share in the mass of blood cells and contain hemoglobin. The main function is the transfer of O 2 with the assistance of Hb. In addition, red blood cells participate in:
- in the absorption of lipids, amino acids, toxins
- in enzymatic processes
- when regulating the acid-base balance of the body
- in regulating plasma ion equilibrium
A decrease in the number of red blood cells is one of the signs of anemia. In addition to anemia, red blood cells decrease when the volume of blood in the bloodstream increases, for example during pregnancy.
An increase in the number of red blood cells (erythrocytosis) is characteristic of erythremia. CBC in newborns will show erythrocytosis during the first 3 days of life. In adults, erythrocytosis is observed during fasting, profuse sweating, climbs to heights.
Leukocytes: their physiological role in the body
The number of leukocytes (L) in the bloodstream is an important diagnostic criterion. They perform important functions– protective, trophic and others. An increase in the number of leukocytes more than 10 × 10 9 /l (G/l) is called leukocytosis.
Most often, leukocytosis occurs as a consequence acute infections, generated by cocci. Therefore, the CBC will definitely show inflammation, pneumonia, and blood cancer. Leukocytosis is typical for:
- leukemia of various courses, malignant tumors
- inflammatory, purulent, acute infectious processes
- uremia
- myocardial infarction
- toxic poisoning, severe blood loss, shock states, extensive burns
UAC at acute appendicitis will show an increase in the amount of L. Leukocytosis is characteristic of tubal pregnancy, splenic rupture, acute gout.
A decrease in the number of leukocytes below 3.5 g/l is called leukopenia. The tendency to leukopenia occurs among healthy populations and is often hereditary, but may be influenced by exposure external factors environment (solar radiation).
Sometimes it occurs during fasting, when tone decreases, or during sleep. Leukopenia is typical for:
- infections caused by viruses and bacteria – typhoid fever, endocarditis, salmonellosis, measles, influenza, rubella
- lupus erythematosus
- hemoblastoses
- and children (read more by following the link)
The appearance of leukopenia is associated with inhibition of cell maturation and the release of L from the hematopoietic organs and their redistribution in the vascular bed.
The diagnostic value of calculating the leukoformula is enormous in many cases. pathological conditions. It can be used to judge the severity of the situation and the effectiveness of the prescribed therapy.
Leukocytes include cells of the lymphocytic, monocyte, and granulocytic series. To find out their number use counting leukocyte formula – % content different types leukocytes:
- band and segmented neutrophils
- eosinophils
- monocytes
- basophils
- lymphocytes
Neutrophils carry out bactericidal and virucidal functions. They are capable of phagocytosis in capillaries and participate in all stages of inflammation. Therefore, an increase in the number of neutrophils will show inflammation in the body. Neutrophilia (above 8×10 9 /l) is present in any suppurative process, sepsis.
Eosinophils have a detoxifying effect. They are found in large quantities in tissue fluid, intestinal mucosa, skin.
Eosinophilia accompanies diseases connective tissue– polyarteritis, rheumatoid arthritis, tumors, especially with metastases and necrosis.
Eosinopenia (decrease) is typical for an infectious-toxic process, in postoperative period. And it indicates the severity of the condition.
Basophils have anticoagulant properties. Involved in inflammatory and allergic processes. Basophilia occurs when an allergic reaction to food, medication, or foreign protein. For oncology - chronic myeloid leukemia, myelofibrosis, erythremia, lymphogranulomatosis.
Characteristic of ulcerative colitis, treatment with estrogen. Basophilia is likely during ovulation and pregnancy, with lung cancer, anemia of unknown origin, and iron deficiency.
Monocytes have the ability to phagocytose. They actively phagocytose (absorb) cell debris, small foreign bodies, malaria plasmodia, and mycobacterium tuberculosis.
With tuberculosis, monocytosis is observed in the blood - an increase in the number of monocytes. Monocytopenia is observed with hypoplasia of hematopoiesis.
Lymphocytes important for immunity. In addition, lymphocytes take part in the fight against infection and also perform a trophic function at sites of inflammation and wounds. Lymphocytosis is possible with infectious mononucleosis, tuberculosis, syphilis.
Platelets - physiological role, clinical significance
A formed element of blood, participates in the processes of hemostasis. Thrombocytosis(increase in tr number) can be observed under physiological conditions after physical activity, due to excitement nervous system. Thrombocytosis occurs when:
- injuries with muscle damage
- burns, asphyxia, after blood loss and removal of the spleen
- leukemia – erythremia, myeloid leukemia
Thrombocytopenia(decrease in tr number) in physiological conditions occurs during menstrual blood loss in women, after histamine. In pathological conditions, thrombocytopenia occurs when:
Wherein great importance has an autoimmune factor - the formation of antibodies to its platelets.
Erythrocyte sedimentation rate
An increase in ESR can occur under physiological conditions - during pregnancy, during fasting, when eating dry food, after vaccination, when taking certain medications.
Changes in ESR in pathology have diagnostic and prognostic meaning. And it serves as an indicator of the effectiveness of the treatment. ESR increases with:
- infections and inflammations
- purulent processes
- rheumatism
- kidney diseases, liver diseases ( including with)
- myocardial infarction, malignant tumors, anemia
Reduced ESR indicators occur in processes accompanied by blood thickening. Sometimes observed in neuroses, epilepsy, anaphylactic shock, with erythremia.
Total red blood cell volume (hematocrit)
Hematocrit (Ht) – the ratio of plasma to shaped elements. An increase in Ht occurs with heart defects and is accompanied by cyanosis and erythrocytosis.
A decrease in hematocrit is typical for various anemias in the second half of pregnancy.
Color index
Color or color index is the relative amount of Hb in a red blood cell. A decrease in this value occurs with iron deficiency.
An increase in the color index is observed with anemia, deficiency of Vit B 12 (cyanocobolamine), folic acid. Accompanies cirrhosis of the liver, disease thyroid gland, occurs during therapy with cytostatics, taking contraceptives, and using anticonvulsants.
Normal blood laboratory tests
An important stage in assessing the result of OAC is to establish the difference between pathology and the norm. To do this, it is necessary to define normal indicators - these are indicators found in healthy people. They may differ depending on gender.
| Index | Normal values | |
| men | women | |
| Hemoglobin, Hb | 125 - 170 g/l | 105 – 155 g/l |
| Red blood cells, Er | 3.8 – 5.5 T/L | 3.5 – 4.9 T/l |
| Leukocytes, L | 3.8 – 9.5 G/L | |
| Hematocrit | 40 – 50 % | 38 – 47 % |
| ESR | 1 – 10 mm/h | 2 – 12 mm/h |
| Platelets, tr | 150 – 380×10 9 /l | |
Segmented neutrophils Band neutrophils Lymphocytes Monocytes Eosinophils Basophils |
||
When assessing test results, it must be remembered that deviations outside the normal range do not necessarily indicate the presence of a disease.
When interpreting the results, it is necessary to find out whether there are any deviations physiological nature. We should not forget about the variability of the norm associated with personal characteristics.
When interpreting the results, it is necessary to take into account many factors: age, gender, accompanying illnesses, taking medications, living conditions and much more. Therefore, a doctor should do this.
Where to take blood for testing: from a vein or from a finger
The results of laboratory tests are significantly influenced by the location and technique of collection. biological material. IN medical practice More often they consume blood from capillaries. It is usually taken from the pulp ring fingers hands, in difficult cases - from the earlobe.
The puncture is made on the side, where the capillary network is thicker. The blood should flow by gravity so that there is no admixture of tissue fluid, which will distort the result. For testing, capillary blood should be taken:
- for extensive burns of the body, especially the hands
- if the veins are small or inaccessible, if you are obese
- in patients prone to thrombosis
- in newborns
Currently, blood from the venous bed is revered the best material for general clinical analysis. This is due to the use of hematology analyzers. With their help, in our time, OAC is carried out. They are designed and standardized for the processing of venous blood.
When taking blood from a vein, you also need to follow some rules. Best place for drawing blood - the ulnar vein. Do not apply a tourniquet for more than 2 minutes, this will lead to an increase in cellular elements in the bloodstream.
When assessing test results, it is necessary to take into account a number of factors that influence them. Let's name the most significant ones:
- food intake and composition, nutritional routine
- physical stress has a transient and long-term effect on results
- nervous stress increases leukocytosis
- medications
- body position during the collection procedure
- place and technique of blood collection
- time and conditions for delivery of biomaterial to the laboratory
Among other factors that influence the results, the age of the patient, gender, and temperature are relevant. external environment. Harmful tendencies – smoking and alcohol – have a great influence. They lead to an increase in Hb concentration and the number of red blood cells. On the contrary, the number of leukocytes decreases.
Basic rules for preparing to take the UAC
- cancel in consultation with your doctor medicines one day before the test
- do not donate blood after physiotherapy or x-ray examination
- do not donate blood directly after mental and physical stress
- 1 hour before the procedure, refrain from smoking
- Avoid fatty and spicy foods and alcohol 48 hours before the procedure
- go to bed at your usual time, get up no later than one hour before blood sampling
Repeated examinations should be carried out at the same hours, since the morphological composition of the blood is prone to daily fluctuations.
I suggest watching a video of how a general blood test is done:
Do not neglect the rules of preparation for the research procedure, and false results you are not afraid!
So, now the reader knows what a general blood test shows, the purpose of its use, what indicators the general analysis includes. How to prepare for the test procedure, and what factors influence the results. We learned about normal values and how they change under various conditions and diseases of the body.
Still have questions? Ask in the comments.
So what does our blood tell us? We take a blood test for almost any disease. And a competent doctor will certainly send you first for blood tests. For a general analysis, blood is taken either from a vein or from a finger. And the primary analysis can be taken without an empty stomach. But under no circumstances should you eat it for the unfolded one! Remember this!
The reason for this requirement is simple: any food will change your blood sugar, and the analysis will not be objective. It is best to donate blood after a short rest (this is why we most often go for testing in the morning). Again, for the purity of the study.
A competent doctor will definitely take into account your gender and physiological state. Because, say, in women during PMS, ESR increases and the number of platelets decreases.
General analysis indicators:
1. Hemoglobin (Hb)
This is a blood pigment contained in red blood cells, the main function of which is to transport oxygen from the lungs to the tissues and remove CO2 from the body. Normal indicators for men they are 130–160 g/l, for women - 120–140 g/l. If hemoglobin is low, this indicates possible anemia, blood loss or hidden internal bleeding from the lesion internal organs. An increase in hemoglobin is usually observed in blood diseases and some types of heart failure.
2. Red blood cells
These are the red blood cells themselves, containing hemoglobin. Normal values in men - (4.0–5.1) * 10 to the 12th power/l and in women - (3.7–4.7) * 10 to the 12th power/l. An excess of red blood cells occurs in healthy people high altitude in the mountains, as well as for heart defects, diseases of the bronchi, lungs, kidneys and liver. Sometimes this indicates an excess of steroid hormones in the body. A lack of red blood cells indicates anemia, acute blood loss, and chronic inflammatory processes. And sometimes it happens in late pregnancy.
3. Leucrocytes
White blood cells. Produced in the bone marrow and lymph nodes and protect the body from external influences. The norm for everyone is (4.0–9.0) x 10 to the 9th power /l. Excess indicates the presence of infection and inflammation. A large number of them occur when different situations, sometimes not related to diseases. They can jump from physical exertion, stress or pregnancy. But it happens that leukocytosis is associated with diseases, namely:
bacterial infections;
inflammatory processes;
allergic reactions;
leukemia;
reception hormonal drugs, some heart medications (such as digoxin).
But leukopenia (lack of white blood cells) may indicate a viral infection (for example, influenza) or taking certain medications, for example, analgesics, anticonvulsants.
4. Platelets
Cells that provide blood clotting are involved in the formation of blood clots. The normal amount is (180–320) * 10 to the 9th power/l. If they are more than normal, then you may have tuberculosis, ulcerative colitis, or cirrhosis of the liver. This also happens after operations or when using hormonal drugs. Their reduced content occurs under the influence of alcohol, heavy metal poisoning, blood diseases, renal failure, diseases of the liver, spleen, hormonal disorders. And also under the influence of certain medications: antibiotics, diuretics, digoxin, nitroglycerin, hormones.
5. ESR or ROE
Erythrocyte sedimentation rate. This is an indicator of the course of the disease. Typically, ESR increases on days 2–4 of the disease, and reaches a peak during the recovery period. The norm for men is 2–10 mm/h, for women – 2–15 mm/h. Increased performance occur with infections, inflammation, anemia, kidney disease, hormonal disorders, shock after injuries and operations, during pregnancy, after childbirth, during menstruation, and a decrease is observed with circulatory failure, anaphylactic shock.
6. Glucose
Glucose concentration in healthy body should be 3.5–6.5 mmol/liter. A lack of glucose indicates insufficient and irregular nutrition, hormonal diseases, an excess indicates diabetes mellitus.
7. Total protein
Its norm is 60–80 grams/liter. With deterioration of the liver, kidneys, or malnutrition, it decreases. This often happens after strict diets.
8. Total bilirubin
Bilirubin should show no higher than 20.5 mmol/liter. It is an indicator of liver function. With hepatitis, cholelithiasis or destruction of red blood cells, bilirubin increases.
9. Creatinine
Creatinine is responsible for your kidneys. Its normal concentration: 0.18 mmol/liter. Exceeding the norm is a sign of kidney failure; if it falls short of the norm, it means you need to increase your immunity.
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What you can read about your health from the most informative analysis
Whatever your illness, the first test that a competent doctor will send you for will be a general (general clinical) blood test, says our expert - cardiologist, doctor highest category Tamara Ogieva.
Blood for general analysis is taken venous or capillary, that is, from a vein or from a finger. The primary general analysis can be taken without an empty stomach. A detailed blood test is given only on an empty stomach.
For biochemical analysis, blood will have to be donated only from a vein and always on an empty stomach. After all, if you drink, say, coffee with sugar in the morning, the glucose level in your blood will certainly change and the analysis will be incorrect.
A competent doctor will definitely take into account your gender and physiological condition. For example, in women during “ critical days” ESR increases and platelet count decreases.
A general analysis provides more information about inflammation and the state of the blood (propensity for blood clots, the presence of infections), and biochemical analysis is responsible for the functional and organic state of internal organs - liver, kidneys, pancreas.
General analysis indicators:
1. HEMOGLOBIN (Hb) is a blood pigment found in erythrocytes (red blood cells), its main function is the transfer of oxygen from the lungs to the tissues and the removal of carbon dioxide from the body.
Normal values for men are 130-160 g/l, women - 120-140 g/l.
Reduced hemoglobin occurs with anemia, blood loss, hidden internal bleeding, damage to internal organs, for example, kidneys, etc.
It can increase with dehydration, blood diseases and some types of heart failure.
2. ERYTHROCYTES - blood cells that contain hemoglobin.
Normal values are (4.0-5.1) * 10 to the 12th power/l and (3.7-4.7) * 10 to the 12th power/l, for men and women, respectively.
An increase in red blood cells occurs, for example, in healthy people at high altitudes in the mountains, as well as in congenital or acquired heart defects, diseases of the bronchi, lungs, kidneys and liver. The increase may be due to an excess of steroid hormones in the body. For example, with Cushing's disease and syndrome, or during treatment with hormonal drugs.
Decrease - with anemia, acute blood loss, with chronic inflammatory processes in the body, as well as in late pregnancy.
3. LEUCOCYTES - white blood cells, they are formed in the bone marrow and lymph nodes. Their main function is to protect the body from adverse effects. Norm - (4.0-9.0) x 10 to the 9th degree / l. Excess indicates the presence of infection and inflammation.
There are five types of leukocytes (lymphocytes, neutrophils, monocytes, eosinophils, basophils), each of them performs a specific function. If necessary, a detailed blood test is done, which shows the ratio of all five types of leukocytes. For example, if the level of leukocytes in the blood is increased, a detailed analysis will show which type has increased their total number. If due to lymphocytes, then there is an inflammatory process in the body; if there are more eosinophils than normal, then an allergic reaction can be suspected.
WHY ARE THERE MUCH LEUKOCYTES?
There are many conditions in which changes in white blood cell levels are observed. This does not necessarily indicate illness. Leukocytes, as well as all indicators of general analysis, react to various changes in the body. For example, during stress, pregnancy, or after physical exertion, their number increases.
An increased number of leukocytes in the blood (also known as leukocytosis) also occurs with:
Infections (bacterial),
Inflammatory processes
Allergic reactions,
Malignant neoplasms and leukemia,
Taking hormonal medications, some heart medications (for example, digoxin).
And here reduced quantity white blood cells (or leukopenia): this condition often occurs with a viral infection (for example, influenza) or taking certain medications, for example, analgesics, anticonvulsants.
4. PLATELETS - blood cells, an indicator of normal blood clotting, are involved in the formation of blood clots.
Normal amount - (180-320) * 10 to the 9th power/l
An increased amount occurs when:
Chronic inflammatory diseases(tuberculosis, ulcerative colitis, cirrhosis of the liver), after operations, treatment with hormonal drugs.
Reduced when:
The effects of alcohol, heavy metal poisoning, blood diseases, kidney failure, liver diseases, spleen diseases, hormonal disorders. And also under the influence of certain medications: antibiotics, diuretics, digoxin, nitroglycerin, hormones.
5. ESR or ROE - erythrocyte sedimentation rate (erythrocyte sedimentation reaction) - this is the same thing, an indicator of the course of the disease. Typically, ESR increases on days 2-4 of the disease, sometimes reaching a maximum during the recovery period. The norm for men is 2-10 mm/h, for women - 2-15 mm/h.
Increased with:
Infections, inflammation, anemia, kidney disease, hormonal disorders, shock after injuries and operations, during pregnancy, after childbirth, during menstruation.
Downgraded:
In case of circulatory failure, anaphylactic shock.
Biochemical analysis indicators:
6. GLUCOSE - it should be 3.5-6.5 mmol/liter. Decreased - with insufficient and irregular nutrition, hormonal diseases. Increased in diabetes mellitus.
7. TOTAL PROTEIN - norm - 60-80 grams / liter. Decreases with deterioration of the liver, kidneys, malnutrition ( a sharp decline total protein is a frequent symptom that a strict restrictive diet clearly did not benefit you).
8. TOTAL BILIRUBIN - normal - no higher than 20.5 mmol/liter shows how the liver is working. Increase - with hepatitis, cholelithiasis, destruction of red blood cells.
9. CREATININE - should not be more than 0.18 mmol/liter. The substance is responsible for the functioning of the kidneys. Exceeding the norm is a sign of kidney failure; if it falls short of the norm, it means you need to increase your immunity.
Introduction
Currently, there are many ways to diagnose diseases, each of which has its own advantages and disadvantages. Unfortunately, not all studies help to accurately identify a particular pathology. For example, with the help of X-rays and ultrasound, only serious anatomical deviations in the development of organs and systems of the body are determined, and functional disorders With such an examination, as a rule, it is not possible to detect. Therefore, doctors, in addition to the research methods mentioned above, prescribe certain tests to patients. It is laboratory tests that make it possible to identify disturbances in the functioning of organs and systems of the body, detect infectious agents, make the correct diagnosis and prescribe treatment.
Some diseases (cancer, infections urinary tract, endocrine pathologies etc.) can long time are practically asymptomatic, so each person is recommended to periodically take blood and urine tests to make sure there are no abnormalities or, if any, to begin treatment on time. In addition to deciphering the most common analyses, this book provides diagrams medical examinations, including lists of necessary laboratory tests.
Preparing for tests
Laboratory tests allow for timely and accurate diagnosis various diseases. After all, their manifestations are primarily reflected in metabolic processes in organism. More than 50% of information about a patient’s health status is provided to doctors by test results. It is the data from laboratory tests that allow doctors to choose treatment tactics.
The accuracy of test results depends not only on the qualifications of laboratory technicians and the quality of reagents and equipment, but also on the preparation of the patient for the study, that is, on the time and correctness of collecting material.
Blood donation procedure
Almost all blood tests must be taken on an empty stomach - at least 8 hours (preferably 12 hours) must pass between the last meal and the blood draw. Before blood collection, you can only drink water. However, this does not apply to a general blood test: it can be taken 1 hour after breakfast, which may consist of unsweetened tea, porridge without sugar, butter and milk, as well as an apple.
Blood tests for C-peptide and insulin should be taken strictly on an empty stomach before 10 am.
Also, throughout the day, regardless of food intake, you can be tested for genetic polymorphisms.
Testing for hormones and antibodies to infections can be done 6 hours after the last meal.
For a number of studies, blood is donated strictly at a certain time of day. For example, blood tests for iron and some hormones are given only before 10 am.
Analysis to determine lipid profile should be taken 12 hours after eating.
You should refrain from smoking 1 hour before blood sampling, and avoid physical activity the day before the test.
If an analysis is ordered to determine the level uric acid in the blood, a few days before the test it is necessary to give up meat, liver, kidneys, fish, coffee and tea, and also avoid intense physical activity. The diet should be followed 2 days before donating blood for viral hepatitis. In this case, citrus fruits and carrots should be excluded from the diet.
If drug treatment is prescribed, blood should be donated before starting to take them or no earlier than 10-14 days after stopping them.
You cannot donate blood after physiotherapeutic procedures, ultrasound, massage, reflexology, rectal examination and radiography.
It is recommended that women donate blood for hormone testing strictly according to the days of the cycle: LH and FSH - days 3-5, estradiol - days 5-7 or 21-23, prolactin, DHA sulfate and testosterone - 7-9 -th, progesterone – 21-23rd day.
Urine collection rules
Hygiene rules
Before collecting urine, women should wash their vagina and labia with a sterile cotton swab moistened with warm, soapy water, moving from front to back. After this, it is recommended to wash the genitals with warm boiled water and blot with a sterile napkin.
It is not recommended to take a urine test during menstruation.
Men need to rinse the external opening before collecting urine. urethra warm soapy water, then wash with warm boiled water and blot with a sterile cloth.
Collection of urine for general analysis
For a general analysis, you should collect the first morning urine sample immediately after waking up on an empty stomach.
When urinating, women need to spread their labia, men completely pull back the skin fold and release the external opening of the urethra.
You can store urine in the refrigerator for no more than 1.5 hours.
24-hour urine collection
To determine the content of total protein, albumin, glucose, creatinine, bilirubin, calcium, phosphorus, sodium and potassium, urine must be collected within 24 hours at normal drinking regime(about 1.5 liters of liquid per day).
The patient should be released at 6-8 a.m. bladder(this portion is not submitted for analysis), and then during the day, collect all the urine in a sterile dark glass vessel with a capacity of at least 2 liters. In this case, the last portion of urine must be collected at the same time as the first. After collecting urine, you need to measure and record its volume, and then shake and pour 50-
100 ml for laboratory research in a special container with a lid.
The container with urine must be closed with a lid and stored on the bottom shelf of the refrigerator.
Collection of urine for research according to Nechiporenko
In the morning on an empty stomach, you should collect a medium portion of urine. The collection is carried out using the three-glass test method: first you need to urinate in the first glass, then in the second and in the third. The second (middle) portion of urine should be larger. It must be collected in a sterile glass container, and then pour 20-30 ml into a special container with a lid and delivered to the laboratory.
Collection of urine for research according to Zimnitsky
At 6 o'clock in the morning the patient needs to empty the bladder, and then throughout the day, every 3 hours, collect urine in separate containers, which indicate the time of collection. There should be 8 servings of urine in total. Tests must be delivered to the laboratory in separate containers.
Rules for collecting stool
Hygiene rules
Before collecting stool, be sure to urinate and then hygiene procedures: Wash the external genitalia and anus with warm water and soap, and then blot with a sterile cloth.
General analysis and analysis for dysbacteriosis
It is necessary to collect stool for examination in the morning. Defecation should be done in a dry, clean container.
You cannot submit stool for analysis after x-ray examination, taking laxatives, activated carbon, iron and bismuth preparations, as well as the use rectal suppositories and enemas.
A stool sample (2-4 g) from different parts of the entire portion should be transferred to a special container using a clean spoon.
The container must be closed with a lid and taken to the laboratory.
Occult blood test
3 days before the test, you must exclude meat, liver, sausages, and all foods containing iron from your diet. The collection of feces is carried out in the same way as in the previous case.
Test for helminth eggs
For this study you need to take material from the perianal folds. This must be done in the morning before urination, defecation and hygiene procedures.
You need to swipe a cotton swab around the anus several times, then put the swab in a special container and deliver it to the laboratory.
Rules for sputum collection
To improve coughing the day before the test, you should take expectorants. Before coughing, the patient needs to brush his teeth and rinse his mouth with boiled water. Sputum should be collected in a sterile container and delivered to the laboratory within 1 hour.
Sperm collection rules
A semen analysis is taken after 48 hours of sexual abstinence. It is not recommended to take alcohol, medications, or take a steam bath for the same amount of time.
In the morning after waking up, the patient needs to urinate and then wash the external opening of the urethra with warm water and soap. The material for research is given by masturbation into a sterile container.
Blood tests
Blood is a liquid tissue of the body, which consists of plasma and formed elements suspended in it. In a healthy adult, blood plasma is about 52–60%, and formed elements are 40–48%. Plasma consists of water (90%), proteins dissolved in it (about 7%) and other minerals and organic compounds. The main plasma proteins are globulins, albumins and fibrinogen. Inorganic salts make up about 1% of plasma. Also contained in blood plasma nutrients(lipids and glucose), vitamins, enzymes, hormones, metabolic products, as well as inorganic ions.
The formed elements of blood include leukocytes, erythrocytes and platelets.
Leukocytes - white blood cells - part immune system body. They produce antibodies and participate in immune reactions. Normally, there are fewer leukocytes in the blood than other formed elements.
Erythrocytes - red blood cells - contain hemoglobin (a protein containing iron), which gives the blood its red color. Hemoglobin transports gases, primarily oxygen.
Blood plasma contains gases, in particular oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Platelets - blood platelets - are fragments of the cytoplasm of giant cells bone marrow, limited cell membrane. They ensure blood clotting, thereby protecting the body from severe blood loss.
General blood analysis
General clinical analysis blood allows you to identify a number of diseases at the most early stages their development. This is why a blood test is always done when preventive examinations. Repeated blood tests allow you to evaluate the effectiveness of the treatment.
Normal values for a complete blood count are given in Tables 1 and 2.
Table 1
Normal blood test results
table 2
Leukocyte formula
Red blood cells
The total volume of red blood cells is usually called the hematocrit value. It is expressed as a percentage. Normal hematocrit in men is 40-48%, in women – 36-42%.
Increased rate
An increased content of red blood cells is observed with:
Dehydration of the body (toxicosis, vomiting, diarrhea);
Polycythemia;
Erythremia;
Hypoxia.
The normal number of red blood cells in men in 1 μl of blood is 4-5 million, in women – 3.74.7 million.
Sometimes an increased content of red blood cells is observed with congenital and acquired heart defects, as well as with insufficient function of the adrenal cortex and an excess of steroids in the body. However, it is impossible to diagnose these diseases only based on the results of a general blood test; other studies are also necessary.
Reduced rate
A reduced erythrocyte count is observed with:
Anemia (in this case there is also a decrease in hemoglobin concentration);
Overhydration.
A reduced content of red blood cells is also observed during acute blood loss, during chronic inflammatory processes, as well as in late pregnancy. In addition, a decrease in the number of red blood cells is typical for patients with reduced function bone marrow or its pathological changes.
Hemoglobin
Many blood diseases are associated with a disorder in the structure of hemoglobin. If the amount of hemoglobin is higher or lower than normal, this indicates the presence of pathological conditions.
The normal amount of hemoglobin in newborns is 210 g/l, in infants under the age of 1 month - 170.6 g/l, at the age of 1-3 months - 132.6 g/l, 4-6 months - 129.2 g /l, 7-12 months - 127.5 g/l, in children over 2 years old - 116-135 g/l.
Increased rate
An increased hemoglobin content is observed with:
Erythremia;
Polycythemia;
Dehydration of the body (with blood thickening).
Reduced rate
A reduced hemoglobin content is observed with:
Blood loss, including hidden bleeding (Table 3).
In some cardiovascular diseases, the amount of hemoglobin may be higher than normal.
Low hemoglobin levels are also common in cancer patients and people whose bone marrow, kidneys, and some other organs are damaged.
At reduced content hemoglobin associated with anemia, it is recommended to eat beef liver and pressed caviar.
Table 3
Indicators for blood loss
Hematocrit
Hematocrit shows the ratio of plasma and red blood cell volumes. This indicator is usually used to express the total volume of red blood cells. Hematocrit allows us to judge the severity of anemia, at which it can decrease by 15-25%.
Increased rate
An increased hematocrit is observed with:
Polycythemia;
Dehydration of the body;
Peritonitis.
Reduced rate
A decreased hematocrit is observed with:
Chronic hyperazotemia.
An increased hematocrit can be observed in burns due to a decrease in the volume of circulating plasma.
Sometimes a low hematocrit indicates a chronic inflammatory process or cancer. Also, hematocrit decreases in late pregnancy, during fasting, prolonged bed rest, and with diseases of the heart, blood vessels and kidneys due to an increase in the volume of circulating plasma.
Average red blood cell volume
This indicator is used to determine the type of anemia. The average volume of erythrocytes is calculated by the hematocrit value, divided by the number of erythrocytes in 1 μl of blood and multiplied by 10: MCV = H 1 x 10 / RBC (H 1 - hematocrit, RBC - number of erythrocytes, x 10 12 / l).
Increased rate
An increased average erythrocyte volume is observed with:
Macrocytic and megaloblastic anemia (lack of vitamin B12, folic acid deficiency);
Hemolytic anemia.
Sometimes the average volume of red blood cells increases with liver disease and certain genetic disorders.
Normal indicator
A normal average erythrocyte volume is observed when:
Normocytic anemia;
Anemia accompanied by normocytosis.
Reduced rate
A reduced average erythrocyte volume is observed with:
Microcytic anemia (iron deficiency, thalassemia);
Hemolytic anemia.
Blood analysis. What do the indicators say?Each of us has had our blood tested, but not everyone knows what the results of this test indicate.
A general blood test is one of the most common diagnostic methods, allowing the doctor to diagnose inflammatory and infectious diseases and assess the effectiveness of treatment.
For the analysis, capillary blood (from a finger) or venous blood (from a vein) is used. There is no need to prepare for this examination, but it is recommended to carry it out in the morning, on an empty stomach.
Main indicators of general blood test
- Hemoglobin
Hemoglobin is the main component of red blood cells, coloring the blood red and delivering oxygen to all organs and tissues.
Hemoglobin norm for men - 130-160 g/l, for women - 120-140 g/l
Increased hemoglobin may indicate polycythemia, excessive physical activity, dehydration, or blood thickening. Reduced hemoglobin may indicate anemia.
- Color index
The color index is determined by the ratio of the amount of hemoglobin in red blood cells. This indicator is used to determine the type of anemia.
Color index norm for men - 0.85-1.15, for women - 0.85-1.15
An excess of the norm may indicate spherocytosis, a decrease in the norm may indicate iron deficiency anemia.
- Red blood cells
Erythrocytes are red blood cells that have lost their nucleus, containing hemoglobin and transporting oxygen.
Red blood cell norm for men - 4-5.1x10 12, for women - 3.7-4.7x10 12
An increase in the rate of red blood cells may indicate polycythemia (bone marrow disease) and dehydration, a decrease may indicate anemia due to blood loss, lack of iron, and vitamins.
- Reticulocytes
Reticulocytes are young, immature red blood cells that have remnants of a nucleus. Only a small part of these red blood cells enters the blood, and the majority is contained in the bone marrow.
Reticulocyte norm for men - 0.2-1.2%, for women - 0.2-1.2%
Excessive levels of reticulocytes in the blood indicate anemia and blood loss. A decrease in the number of reticulocytes may be a sign of kidney disease, impaired erythrocyte metabolism, or aplastic anemia.
- Platelets
Platelets are blood cells that are formed from bone marrow cells. Thanks to these cells, blood can clot.
Platelet rate for men - 180-320x10 9, for women - 180-320x10 9
An increase in platelets may indicate an inflammatory process, polycythemia, and may also be a consequence surgical operations. A decrease in platelet count may indicate systemic autoimmune diseases, aplastic anemia, hemolytic anemia, hemolytic disease, isoimmunization by Rh factor and blood groups.
ESR - this abbreviation stands for erythrocyte sedimentation rate. ESR deviation from normal may be a sign of inflammatory or pathological process, occurring in the body.
ESR norm for men - 1-10 mm/h, for women - 2-15 mm/h
ESR may increase during pregnancy, infectious disease, inflammatory process, anemia, tumor formation.
- Leukocytes
Leukocytes are white blood cells. Their main function is to protect the body from microbes and foreign substances.
Leukocyte norm for men - 4-9x10 9, for women - 4-9x10 9
An increase in the number of leukocytes may indicate leukemia, inflammatory or infectious process, allergies, blood loss, autoimmune diseases. A decrease in the number of leukocytes may indicate certain infections (influenza, rubella, measles, etc.), a genetic abnormality of the immune system, increased spleen function, and bone marrow pathology.
Norm of segmented neutrophils for men - 47-72%, for women - 47-72%
An increase in neutrophils indicates the presence of bacterial, fungal and some other infections, inflammatory processes due to tissue trauma, arthritis, arthrosis, etc. Neutrophils can also increase due to physical activity, temperature changes, and during pregnancy.
A decrease in neutrophils may occur due to exhaustion of the body, after prolonged chronic diseases, thyroid disease.
- Eosinophils
Normal eosinophil count for men - 0-5%, for women - 0-5%
- Basophils
Basophils - take part in allergic reactions immediate type.
Basophil norm for men - 0-1%, for women - 0-1%
The number of basophils increases in blood diseases, ulcerative colitis, chickenpox, intolerance food products and medicines. Decreased with hyperthyroidism, ovulation, pregnancy, stress, acute infections and increased production of adrenal hormones.
- Lymphocytes
Lymphocytes - fight foreign cells and proteins, viral infections, release antibodies into the blood and block antigens.
Norm of lymphocytes for men - 18-40%, for women - 18-40%
The number of lymphocytes increases in infectious monoculosis, hepatitis, tuberculosis and syphilis, viral infections, as well as leukemia. Decreased in acute infection, autoimmune diseases, cancer, immunodeficiency.
- Monocytes
Monocytes - destroy foreign proteins and cells in tissues.
Basophil norm for men - 2-9%, for women -2-9%
The number of monocytes increases after acute infections, with tuberculosis, syphilis, and rheumatic diseases. Decreased with bone marrow damage.
